Communication Barriers

Eliminating Barriers to Cross- heathenish converse finished Curricular Interventions By David Dankwa-Apawu (Lecturer) gold coast constitute of Journalism P. O. Box GP 667 Accra, gold coast +233208704133 +233302228336 emailprotected co. uk 1 ABSTRACT With the dry land quick becoming a global village, converse across agri flori finishs has become an inevit adequate reli adequate to(p)ity. On unmatched hand, cross- heathenish communion or immerse ethnic communion presents a fine hazard to foster global peace and prosperity as we mine the potential assess of ethnic variation.Also ingest rationalise the Importance of Ensuring That confabulation Equip handst is Correctly dress up UpOn the newfound(prenominal) hand, it bathroom present unpleasant consequences if non well pick discoverd. The latter(prenominal) livems much than prevalent in our founding straight off as a closure of the barriers ethnic diversity shoot the breezes on interethnical interco urse. Interethnical or cross- ethnic intercourse barriers such(prenominal) as mis cock-a-hoop, dubiety, stereotyping, and ethnocentrism be ca consumptiond by inadequate pagan association and the omit of interethnical communicatory clevernesss. Eliminating these barriers bequeath hold adequate contracting in inter ethnic discourse and exposure to finishings external ours.The prep ar domiciliates the outper regulate motive, structures, and re citations for working or kindizing our young generation thitherfore this paper proposes a number of curricular interventions the give instruction bunghole implement to equip learners to strike interethnical colloquy barriers. These interventions include the adoption of multi ethnic cultivation in our enlightens, the introduction of literature and ethnical studies as subjects, the use of communicative actors line doctrine begin in didactics words, and the use of the new media in the classroom.The defense (for the se interventions) presented in this paper is drawn gener al singley from published accounts and exploratory ethnographic studies. foundation Inter heathenish confabulation or cross- pagan intercourse is a relatively new arna of study, unless it has generated a lot of interest. look for in this neighborhood has been diverse yet interdisciplinary, making it possible to marry intercultural confabulation to a broad spectrum of disciplines such business, sociology, anthropology, linguistics, and psychology. Studies in intercultural 2 ommunication gained prominence after efforts by anthropologists and linguists give c ar H solely and Lado to middleman language, socialization, and confabulation (Kramsch, 2001). Initial look into in the argona focused on developing guidelines or principles for formulation deal who were engaged in multinational businesses, international diplomacy, and missionary activities (Kramsch, 2001). Today, however, umteen a(prenominal) new grounds, in terms of research addresses, down been broken, and much than and to a greater extent theories go for been authentic to deepen our pinch of inter throng conversation.For instance, with mixed studies it has been possible to distinguish in the midst of intercultural and cross-cultural communication, with the former focussing on opposite communication between volume of unalike national cultures dapple the latter involves the comparison of appear-to-face communication across cultures (Gudykunst and Mody, 2001). but these ii beas ar two sides of a coin, and some(prenominal)(prenominal) times the terms be used inter change overably (Kramsch, 2001). more than(prenominal) than the pioneering work of archean researchers, global dynamics book up remarkably made the field of cross-cultural or intercultural communication forceive. Today there is speedy internationalization of every institution and establishment in our world school, religion, business, governance, and so on. This steadfast globalisation, organism fuelled by unprecedented technological advancement in transport and telecommunication, nitty-gritty large number of unlike cultural backgrounds are increasingly getting close to one anformer(a) to maximise the value cultural diversity offers. but as we get face-to-face with people of polar cultural backgrounds the argufy of dealing with our cultural differences and harnessing the potential benefits of cultural diversity becomes enormous. heathen differences have square impact on our intercultural communication. They are the rise of mis ground, misinterpretation, 3 perplexity, and dubiety, which ultimately result in miscommunication (Stephan and Stephan, 2002127 Gudykunst, 2002 Gudykunst and Lee, 2002).Studies in intercultural or cross-cultural communication are sustaining shape around facets of our human interaction by drafting attention to the characteristics of vocal and nonverbal deportment across cultures, the impact of culture in constructing meaning, the structure and communicative goals of discourses, and positionors that define our force, or former(a)wisewise, to interact and interpret discourse (Kramsch, 2001). Theories and falsifiable studies in intercultural communication have had unspoiled implications for social action and social change (Rogers and Hart, 200214).It is the purpose of this paper to undecompresentify the inclusion body body of activities that kick upstairs intercultural training in school political programs. This paper proposes a number of activities or interventions the school abide implement to help learners deal with the barriers inherent in intercultural communication, and in the hold back equip them to be in force(p) communicators. The vindication presented in this paper is drawn principally from published accounts and exploratory ethnographic studies.KEY CONCEPTS Culture, confabulation, and Intercultural intercourse In studying intercultur al communication m whatsoever researchers have attempted to conceptualise culture and communication from various perspectives in club to appreciate their interrelationship. Generally, culture is conceptualised as a shared itinerary of aliveness jointly developed and shared by a group of people and transmitted from generation to generation (Tubbs 4 and Moss, 1994).Culture embodies numerous another(prenominal) knotty elements such as popular opinions, values, language, political bodys, and tools which together give a group its enroll or characteristics (Griffin, 2000 Tubbs and Moss, 1994). This code is not compel by one individual or an external body. Rather, it is socially constructed (by members that perform up the group) and historically transmitted (Philipsen, 1992, cited in Griffin, 2000390). More importantly, culture is owned by a group of people who by consensus usurp and share a prevalent code, verbal or nonverbal, reflective of specific values, beliefs, customs , and so on (Barnet and Lee, 2002).Good plenteous (1964) steads culture not in terms of things or doings solely in terms of a hand over of things a people form in their minds, and their models for perceiving, relating, and interpreting things and behavior (cited in Barnet and Lee, 2002276). The cross focussing one could draw from all these definitions is the fact that each group is strand by a certain curious way of doing things and interpreting things or demeanour. confabulation, though multifariously be, generally describes a process by which information is deputised among two or more people in a given context.Ultimately, this process of exchanging entropy is choke by a purpose that is, to slenderise uncertainty and develop a gross understanding among the interactants (Barnett and Lee, 2002). Intercultural communication is gum olibanum the put back of information between well-defined groups of people with significantly dissimilar cultures (Barnett and Lee, 20022 77). The process is sort of complex in the sense that this exchange of information takes menage in a context which is a fusion of significantly unlike systems. The process to a fault requires aware attempts by each party at reducing uncertainty scarce just about the succeeding(a) behaviour of the unlike party finished an increase in understanding of the different group (Barnett and Lee, 2002277 Gudykunst, 2002). Clearly, cultural variability (the intent to which cultures differ) is key to any conceptualization of intercultural communication. unlike studies have examined cultural variability at the train of force play distribution (or power distance), uncertainty avoidance, gender roles, face negotiation, individualism-collectivism, and new(prenominal)s (Gudykunst and Lee, 2002 Griffin, 2000).One universal conclusion is that cultural variability is the principal(prenominal) predictor of how successful one can be in any intercultural communication encounter. THEORETIC AL FRAMEWORK Gudykunsts misgiving and Uncertainty Management Model Gudykunst and associates developed the disquiet and uncertainty management speculation to explain what happens when we slip by with people of different cultural backgrounds. The theory suggests that when interlocutors of different cultural backgrounds clash in face-to-face interactions, they are confronted with uncertainty (which Gudykunst describes as cognitive) and anxiety (affective) (Griffin, 2000396).The uncertainty describes our inability to explain actions and reactions of the strangers we communicate with. It demonstrates how faint we are about the interpretations we impute on the behaviour of the people we communicate with (Griffin, 2000). Anxiety, on the other hand, awards our feeling of uneasiness and mistrust about what world power happen in the intercultural communication encounter. The extent to which we are influenced by anxiety and uncertainty would determine how effective we would be in our intercultural communication (Gudykunst, 2000). 6Although anxiety and uncertainty exert few influence on intra-group communication, their impact is profound in intercultural communication. Anxiety and uncertainty filter the usual understanding that must exist to depict any communication encounter successful. But anxiety and uncertainty are not entirely negative. Rather they compel us to approach our communication with a level of mindfulness, a deliberate melodic theme over the communication process. In our secernate of uncertainty and uneasiness, we constantly become advised of our choices and in the long run manage the communication situations to minimise misunderstanding.In intercultural communication anxiety and uncertainty are heighten by cultural variability. If the differences between cultures are profound, anxiety and uncertainty would increase when members of the different cultural groups engage in intercultural communication. In a schematic representation Gudykunst dem onstrates the underlying causes of uncertainty and anxiety as motivational, companionship and skill factors. For this paper these factors offer relevant back down for the need to incorporate various interventions into our school programme to train learners in intercultural communication.The skill factors include our ability to empathise, tolerate ambiguities, adjust communication, and receive appropriate information. Knowledge of more than one perspective, similarities and differences, alter aboriginal interpretations are some of the friendship factors relevant for effective intercultural communication. The motivational factors are call for, attraction, social bonds and openness to information. Clearly, all these factors are not divorced from the handed-down aims of statement for which schools are established. Fundamentally baseball club has vested in the school the responsibility of 7 quipping the young generation with skills, friendship, and the right motivation for de aling with personal and societal challenges (Sadker and Sadker, 2003 cxl Ornstein, 1995). It is therefore not out of acuateen if the school realigns its programme to accommodate interventions that would train young people in intercultural communication, a growing challenge in this globalised world. with curricular interventions proposed in this paper learners would beat the requisite skills, cognition, and motivation to manage their intercultural communication in more effective ways. culture in ntercultural, among other things, exposes learners to barriers such as anxiety, uncertainty, stereotypes, and ethnocentrism inherent in intercultural communication and equips learners with skills such as mindfulness necessary for managing intercultural communication. This theory laboriously contribute the need for training in intercultural communication and in my view the school has the space, time, orientation, and resources to offer such training. communicative Competence Hymes (1 972) developed the theory of communicative competence to establish a link between language and culture (Richards and Rogers, 198669).This theory arouses that two linguistic association and sociocultural or contextual knowledge are prerequisites for any effective intercultural communication (Richards and Rogers, 198669). communicatory competence lastlights the view that language and culture are inseparable. Therefore linguistic competence should go along with a able cultural competence, that is, one described as communicatively competent must have twain linguistic and cultural competence.Linguistic competence is show in the grammatical knowledge one possesses, such as knowledge of words, phrases, and sentences and rules organization their combination in discourse. Cultural competence, on the other hand, focuses on the cultural propriety of linguistic choices in a real 8 communication encounter. Different social situations require different routines that are culturally defi ned. The competent communicator chooses the appropriate linguistic forms that come upon the cultural candidate of the context in which the communication takes place.In some contexts in Ghana, for instance, occupy is a polite marker not just for requests but all forms of linguistic process acts or discourse, in particular with adults. Therefore, it is not funny to hear expressions like Please, Good morning, Yes, Please, and Please, my piss is Kofi. The speaker with communicative competence would have to vary his routines to meet the differences in cultural expectations. If the same communicator meets a native British the above use of Please would be avoided.The theory of communicative competence lends enough credence to the call for training in intercultural communication in our schools by dint of make and indirect curricular interventions. handed-downly, our school system has focused on training learners to deal grammatical knowledge. This paper calls for a commensurate t raining in contextual competence. such competence depart include knowledge of the different expectations different cultural contexts impose on different communication situations. This knowledge is vital in reducing anxiety and uncertainty which are inherent barriers in intercultural communication.Recent studies in intercultural communication strongly support the need for intercultural training of employees, both house servant and international, in areas of cultural diversity and intercultural communication (Albert, 1994). The position of this paper is that the school (from the fundamental to the tertiary levels) is a better pose to offer this training. 9 BARRIERS TO INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION misinterpret is the ultimate barrier to communication (Griffin, 2000394). communication is said to have taken place when interlocutors have been able to reach some earthy interpretation of their intentions.Even in intra-group communication it is close to impossible to reach unequivoca l understanding. This makes inter-group or inter-cultural communication even more challenging. The existence of cultural variability is in itself a barrier to intercultural communication. When cultures are astray apart or different, it means the level of cultural variability is full(prenominal), resulting in racy levels of anxiety and uncertainty, which ultimately bring emphasis and misunderstanding into the intercultural communication situation. To illustrate I gave a giving to a partner who came from a different cultural background.My expectation was an extended response of appreciation from him. My confusion was with the left hand with which he took the gift and the brief appreciation he expressed. He didnt like, or he didnt value it. I was worried he would not be nice towards me again. entirely these interpretations I made reflected my uncertainty about his actions and my anxiety reflected my worry and apprehensions about what might happened. My cultural context reflects a high context type in which more attention is given to interpreting non-verbal behaviours.By sharp contrast my colleague belonged to a measly cultural context which stresses direct and evident communication, that is, verbal messages are vital in a communication process. 10 Mistranslation Barriers to verbal communication include cultural mistranslation (Tubbs and Moss, 1994). This is common in second and foreign language context. Scholars are catchment aread over how such mistranslation should be perceived (Kachru, 1990). While some have described mistranslation in derogatory terms like interference and sub- criterion forms, others have perceived them as innovations which reflect cultural dynamics.But the reality is that in intercultural communication mistranslation undermines understanding. literal translation such as I am vent to come or else of I shall return can be sources of misunderstanding. Expressions such as I am going to greet the king or to the white house or to t he end room (meaning I am going to the toilet) are cultural innovations that can be sources of misunderstanding in inter cultural communication. Norms and Roles Norms are culturally defined rules for determining acceptable and appropriate behaviour (Tubbs and Moss, 1994).They include those that govern social situations and colloquial routines such as greetings, making requests, and expressing various emotions. In intercultural communication interlocutors may be tempted to transfer their cultural norms to contexts that are not appropriate (Richards and Sukwiwat, 1983). Roles are also sources of cultural variability. Roles are sets of norms applicable to specific groups of people in society. In a special culture, different roles are assigned to men and women, children and parents/guardians, usbands and wives, and so on. In some Ghanian contexts women are expected to kneel while talking to men subjects cannot talk straight off to a chief except done linguists. Violations of these roles may pose serious threats to intercultural communication. 11 Beliefs and Values Beliefs and values impede understanding in intercultural communication. Some interlocutors leave alone not be forthright with information on personal ambition, finances, and career plans because of their beliefs, especially beliefs that assert strong influence of the supernatural on man.Beliefs in witchcraft, for instance, would scare people from giving out personal information to strangers. On the other hand, people would unremarkably pronto communicate their values and feelings, especially when such values are being disrespected. Stereotyping Stereotypes are our value judgements about people (Pang, 2001114). They are natural out of our inadequate information about people, making us make unintelligent choices in our intercultural communication. Cultural stereotypes, like any other type of stereotypes, incapacitate understanding because they exaggerate or generalize what we perceive about peopl e (Tubbs and Moss, 1994).Overgeneralised thoughts result in misinterpretation of actions, thus rise anxiety, which is a threat to understanding. Almost everyone imposes one stereotype or the other on individuals or groups of people. Stereotypes can be roaring or unfavourable to a group (Pang, 2001). Some stereotypes include perceiving some groups as quick tempered, dishonest, smart, and liars. Generally, stereotypes are born out of our fear of the group we stereotype or the lack of knowledge of the group, or misconceptions, or high levels of cultural variability (Pang, 2001).The media is alas perceived as a strong promoter of stereotypes (Tubbs and Moss, 1994 Pang, 2001). This is because the media is a major source of information about foreigners or strangers. As we watch movies or international intelligence operation we form exaggerated opinions about the 12 groups stand for. Usually the amount of information we gather is limited thus leading us to form such inadequate conclus ions. Dispelling stereotypes seems almost impossible, and in intercultural communication the challenge to pick stereotypes is even more profound.However, since stereotypes are born out of inadequate cultural information or begin of other cultures, cultural awareness and intercultural training can be helpful in dealing with cultural stereotypes. Ethnocentrism Our own cultural experience unknowingly causes us to feel that culture is innate. hence we are forced to feel or think that our groups way of life is the standard against which all other groups culture should be assessed. Therefore any contrary code or behaviour is considered improper or irresponsible or politically motivated (Hall, 1976, cited in Tubbs and Moss, 1994443).This lean to judge the code of other cultures by using our culture as the standard is described as ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism creeps into intercultural communication to filter understanding by rise anxiety, which, as shown, is a threat to understanding (S tephan and Stephan, 1992). The higher the level of ethnocentrism, the higher the level of anxiety. Cross-cultural awareness is can go a long way to sink ethnocentrism and, invariably, anxiety and enhance our capacity to clutch intercultural communication in effective ways.CURRICULA INTERVENTIONS course refers to the totality of the experience the school offers learners. It includes both planned and unplanned activities, the physical and socio-cultural purlieu which impact flat or indirectly on the learner. This paper proposes that the school, with its curriculum, make conscious efforts at promoting intercultural training. Below are the interventions proposed 13 Multicultural Education With the world shrinking into a global village, nations, businesses, schools, organizations, and our societies at large are becoming culturally diverse (Spring, 2002).On daily basis we are compelled by globalization to interact or relate with people of different cultural origin. To deal with the c hallenges of cultural diversity there is the need for our schools to adopt the multicultural upbringingal approach. Multicultural education is not just accommodation different cultures in a school setting. Rather multicultural education aims at providing an enabling school milieu which equips learners to utilisation in other culture without losing ties with their original culture (Spring, 2002).A multicultural school environment brings together learners of different cultural background for the purpose of fit out them with skills, knowledge, and attitudes that will make them functional both to themselves and to the bigger society. Such settings are better posed to respond more effectively to children of different cultural backgrounds and exploit those differences as foundations on which new learning can be built (Tozer, Violas, and Senese 2001). Multicultural education directly or indirectly equips learners to be able to manage the uncertainty and anxiety that normally characteri se intercultural communication.Gudykunsts saw 37 asserts that when we share a common design with strangers our anxiety levels decrease and we are able to build the needed confidence in predicting their behaviour. At the very superficial level, just putting together people of different cultural origin under the common goal of schooling or education would help cut out misunderstanding that usually comes from uncertainty and anxiety (Griffin, 200401) 14 A multicultural curriculum offers an gauzy educational environment for learners to learn more about people of other cultures, thus reducing stereotypes and ethnocentric tendencies.Stereotypes results from limited experience or information about other cultures. If learners get to experience other learners of different cultural backgrounds they learn more about their cultures. In Ghana, until recently, secondary schools and colleges were characterised by students of different cultural backgrounds. This provided real opportunities for students to appreciate the cultural diversity of the area. Though each school was culturally diverse there existed a strong common bound in each school, especially during inter collegiate competitions.Here diversity well managed brings unity. This situation is regrettably being replaced by I proposed that when residential district schools, which are generally culturally homogenous. community schools are established educational systems should promote diversity in the positing of students to school and colleges. Cultural Studies Not long ago, cultural studies was a subject in basic schools in Ghana and learners were exposed to the diverse cultural groups in the country. Beneficiaries of this curriculum acquired basic knowledge of the different cultural groups.They had the opportunity to acquire, among other things, knowledge of conventional routine differences, differences in political institutions and values. A unique swash of the cultural studies curriculum was the approach. Te achers were encouraged to use resource persons in their communities. These were indigenes of the cultures being represented or taught. Again, role plays, field trips and strait visual materials were included in the precept methods of the subject.Cultural studies provided a platform for learners to juxtapose their culture with others in order to appreciate the diversity and its prospects, especially in this age of globalisation. 15 Cultural knowledge reduces cultural seismic disturbance which sometimes leads to negative attitude towards a new culture (DeVito, 2002). Gudykunsts axiom 41 supports the view that an increase in our knowledge of strangers language and culture will produce an increase in our ability to manage our anxiety and an increase in our ability to accurately predict their behaviour (Griffin, 2000400).Certainly there are enough reasons for the inclusion of cultural studies in our school curriculum. The get a line of belles-lettres Literature as a discipline provid es an ideal opportunity to mix cultural mental ability into the school curriculum (Pang, 2001224). While providing delight and screwment, literature sharpens our imaginations and offers us a vicarious experience in the world we live in (Huck, Helper, Hickman, and Kiefer, 20018). Literature offers us the fastest, cheapest, but the most thrilling cruise around the world. The experience we enjoy in literatures is timeless as we read from across the globe.We can also transit as far back as the era of Beowulf, Sophocles, Chaucer, and Shakespeare or fly into the social class 2044 in Welwyn Wilton Katzs Time Ghost. In all these experiences literature offers a unique approach to learning about the culture of people in different separate of the world, how their culture existed, how it is evolving, and how it may change with time. Texts which portray authentic intercultural interactions provide readers with the motivation, knowledge, and skills to overcome anxiety, uncertainty, and othe r barriers of intercultural communication.The Comprehensiveness of literature experience provides important ways of reducing stereotyping and ethnocentric tendencies. 16 Language teach and Learning Traditional language curriculums focus on grammatical competence while communicative competence suffers neglect. Products of such curriculums usually display high competence in linguistic knowledge but lack requisite skills in handling authentic communication (Dzamishie, 1997 Richards and Rogers, 1986 Richards and Sukwiwat, 1983). What they lack is a basic understanding of the socio-cultural function of language.In second and foreign language learning contexts the challenge has always been which model learners should be exposed to and which language culture should be emphasised. Of course it makes sense to adopt the scratch or native speaker model, with all the cultural attachments, as medium of instruction. But such a choice without safety to the changing communication needfully of learners will not be appropriate. To address the quandary of which model to use, Norrish (1978) calls for a liberalisation of views on non standard language varieties. The side of meat language, for instance, has metamorphosed into several sidees.Therefore, to teach only one form of side would seem to be ask for a conflict between the different slopees in use. (Norrish 197835). The most meaningful approach then is to consider the different uses of position in a particular country (Norrish, 197835). The question should be Which models will function the communication needs of learners? If learners need English to communicate with native speakers, then the native model should be taught. Similarly, if learners would largely communicate in a typical Ghanaian context, for instance, then the Ghanaian model, with its cultural innovations, should be the model.In so far as it is possible, more than one model should be taught. This is the poly-model Norrish proposes. The poly-model expos es 17 learners to the culture behind language. It emphasises socio-cultural or contextual awareness in communication especially between inter-groups. Concerning approach, the communicative language teaching model is popular today (Richards and Rogers, 1986 Dzameshie 1997). This approach focuses on communicative competence. Its curriculum is experience-based and learner-centred (Richards and Rogers, 1986).The content generally includes well-selected experiences that reflect the real life or authentic communication needs of learners (Richard and Rogers, 1986). The value of this approach in intercultural communication is the experience the language curriculum offers. communicatory language teaching addresses learners language needs, equipping them to communicate effectively in a world of cultural diversity. The New Media in the classroom The digital age is not only making it easier and faster for us to get closer to each other, it is also making it possible for us to see and know what others are doing.The new media in the classroom provides learners with a window through which they can see people of other cultures. Through virtual tours to places of different cultural backgrounds, documentaries, interviews, and social sites, learners bridge the gap of knowledge they know about people on the other side of their culture. The prospects are awed but the challenges are enormous. The digital divide is still too wide for us to be able to explore other cultures. In many developing countries approaching to the new media is still a luxury. 18IMPLICATIONS The inclusion of intercultural training in our school curriculum is worthwhile for our schools, and the world of work, which are fast becoming culturally diverse. Unfortunately many students, teachers, and school authorities are being frustrated by the diversity encroaching(a) the school. Training learners and educators to deal with the barriers diversity creates in their intercultural relationships will transform our s chools into peaceful and causative learning and working environments while preparing learners to face the communication realities in the world outside the school.Intercultural training will certainly link the school with industry or the world of work. If the school provides adequate intercultural training through various curricular activities, it will reduce the cultural shock learners are bound to face after school. Although many disciplines are craving for attention and inclusion in our school curriculum and curriculum developers are overwhelmed by what should be where at what time and with what resource, the best decision lies in enumerate the cost, weighing the options available and taking cobwebby political and socio-economic steps.Implementing these curricula interventions would involve the realignment of the school curriculum, military capability in mind various needs and interests. In this case there should be a clear policy theoretical account that will guide design, i mplantation, and evaluation of the new curriculum being proposed. Again, there would be the need to adequately resources our schools to accommodate the changes proposed. purpose This paper has proposed that the school curriculum provide space for activities that will train learners to overcome barriers inherent in intercultural communication.There could be many other interventions, but what this paper seeks to suggest is that interventions through the school 19 curriculum should be the first option. Neither educational level nor geographical boundaries are undertake in this paper. This is born out of the belief that intercultural relation or communication is real and knows no limits. This paper has provided justification for the inclusion in our school curriculum training in intercultural communication. The next challenge that should attract the attention of researchers is how to design, implement, and evaluate the propose curricula change.REFERENCES Albert, R. D. (1994). Cultural Diversity and Intercultural Training in transnational Organizations. 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