Haemoglobinopathy

Review Article Indian J Med Res 134, October 2011, pp 552-560 Invasive & non-invasive approaches for prenatal diagnosis of haemoglobinopathies: Experiences from India R. B. Colah, A. C. Gorakshakar & A. H. Nadkarni National Institute of Immunohaematology (ICMR), Mumbai, India Received October 29, 2010 The thalassaemias and sickle cell disease are the commonest monogenic disorders in India. There are an estimated 7500 – 12,000 babies with ? -thalassaemia major born every year in the country. While the overall prevalence of carriers in different States varies from 1. to 4 per cent, recent work has shown considerable variations in frequencies even within States. Thus, micromapping would help to determine the true burden of the disease. Although screening in antenatal clinics is being done at many centres, only 15-20 per cent of pregnant women register in antenatal clinics in public hospitals in the first trimester of pregnancy. There are only a handful of centres in major cities in this vast country where prenatal diagnosis is done. There is considerable molecular heterogeneity with 64 mutations identified, of which 6 to 7 common mutations account for 80-90 per cent of mutant alleles. First trimester foetal diagnosis is done by chorionic villus sampling (CVS) and DNA analysis using reverse dot blot hybridization, amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) and DNA sequencing. Second trimester diagnosis is done by cordocentesis and foetal blood analysis on HPLC at a few centres. Our experience on prenatal diagnosis of haemoglobinopathies in 2221 pregnancies has shown that >90 per cent of couples were referred for prenatal diagnosis of ? -thalassaemia after having one or more affected children while about 35 per cent of couples were referred for prenatal diagnosis of sickle cell disorders prospectively. There is a clear need for more data from India on non-invasive approaches for prenatal diagnosis. Key words Haemoglobinopathies – India – invasive and non-invasive approaches – prenatal diagnosis Introduction The inherited disorders of haemoglobin are the most common monogenic disorders globally. Around 7 per cent of the population worldwide are carriers with more than 3,00,000 severely affected babies born every year1. Prenatal diagnosis is an integral component of a community control programme for haemoglobinopathies. Estimating the disease burden, generating awareness in the population, screening 552 o identify carriers and couples at – risk and genetic counselling are prerequisites for a successful prevention programme. The remarkable success of such programmes in the 1970s in Cyprus, Italy, Greece and the UK led to the development of control programmes in many other countries2-6. The extent of the problem in India ? -thalassaemia has been reported in most of the communities that have been screened so far in India. While the overall prevalence varies from 1. 5 to 4 per COLAH et al: PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS OF HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES IN INDIA 553 ent in different States, communities like Sindhis, Punjabis, Lohanas, Kutchi Bhanushalis, Jains and Bohris have a higher prevalence (4-17%)7-12. Different reportshaveestimatedthat7500-12,000? -thalassaemia major babies would be born in India each year12 -14. It has also been shown recently by micromapping at the district level in two States, Maharashtra and Gujarat in westernIndiathattheprevalenceof? -thalassaemiatrait in different districts within these States is variable (0 9. 5%). Based on these estimates there would be around 1000birthsof? thalassaemiamajorbabieseachyear in these two States alone15. Thus, such data should be obtained from different States to know the true burden of the disease and for planning and executing control programmes. Haemoglobin S (Hb S) is prevalent in central India and among the tribal belts in western, eastern and southern India, the carrier rates varying from 1-40 per cent16-18. It has been estimated that over 5000 babies with sickle cell disease would be born each year19. Haemoglobin E is widespread in the north eastern States in Assam, Mizoram, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh and Tripura, the prevalence of Hb E trait being highest (64%) among the Bodo-Kacharis in Assam and going up to 30-40 per cent in some other populations in this region20-22. In eastern India the prevalence of Hb E trait varies from 3-10 per cent in West Bengal8,23. Both Hb E andHbSwhenco-inheritedwith? -thalassaemiaresult in a disorder of variable clinical severity24-26. These inherited haemoglobin disorders cause considerable pain and suffering to the patients and their families and are a major drain on health resources in the country. The need for accurate identification of carries and couples at risk Classical ? thalassaemia carriers have typically reduced red cell indices [mean corpuscular volume (MCV)T) ? + 3. -87 (C>T) ? + 4. -80 (C>T) ? + 5. -29 (A>G) ? + 6. -28 (A>G) ? + 7. -25 (A>G) ? + B. Cap site 1. +1 (A>C) ? + C. Initiation codon 1. ATG > ACG ? 0 D. RNA processing mutations i) Splice junction site 1. Codon 30 (G>C) ? 0 2. Codon 30 (G>A) ? 0 3. IVS 1-1 (G>T) ? 0 4. IVS 1-1 (G>A) ? 0 5. IVS 1-129 (A>C) ? 0 6. IVS 1-130 (G>C) ? 0 7. IVS 1-130 (G>A) ? 0 8. IVS II-1 (G>A) ? 0 (ii) Consensus site 1. IVS 1-5 (G>C) ? + 2. IVS 1-128 (TAG > GAG) ? + 3. IVS II-837 (T>G) ? (iii) IVS changes 1. IVS I-110 (G>A) ? + 2. IVS II-591 (T>C) ? + 3. IVS II-613 (C>T) ? + 4. IVS II-654 (C>T) ? + 5. IVS II-745 (C>G) ? + iv) Coding region changes 1. Codon 26 (G>A) Hb E ? + E. RNA translational mutations i) Nonsense 1. Codons 4,5,6 (ACT CCT GAG> ACA TCT ? 0 TAG) 2. Codon 5 (-CT), Codon 13 (C>T), Codon 26 ? (G>C), Codons 27/28 (+C) in cis 3. Codon 6 (GAG > TAG) and on the same ? 0 chromosome Codon 4 (ACT> ACA) , Codon 5 (CCT>TCT) 4. Codon 8 (A>G) ? 5. Codon 13 (C>T), Codon 26 (G>A), Codons ? 27/28 (-C) in cis 6. Codon 15 (TGG > TAG) ? 0 7. Codons 62-64 (7 bp del) ? 0 8. Codons 81-87 (22 bp del) ? 9. Codon 121 (G>T) ? 0 Contd†¦. themselves, today their relatives and extended families are coming forward to get screened38. There is only one centre in Lucknow in north India which offers a formal course for genetic counsellors and there is a need for more such courses throughout the country. Counsellors should be aware that couples at risk of havingachildwith? -thalassaemiamajor,sicklecel l disease, Hb S ? -thalassaemia, Hb E ? -thalassaemia, – ? -thalassaemia, Hb Lepore ? -thalassaemia and Hb SD disease should be given the option of prenatal diagnosis to avoid the birth of a child with a severe disorder. However, couples at risk of having a child with Hb D disease, Hb D ? -thalassaemia and Hb E disease do not require prenatal diagnosis as these disorders are mild. InSardinia,identificationofthemaximumnumber of carriers followed by effective genetic counselling helpedtoreducethebirthrateof? -thalassaemiamajor babies from 1:250 to 1:400039. Prenatal diagnosis The first initiatives in India Facilities for prenatal diagnosis became available in India in the mid 1980s40. Until then, although prenatal diagnosis was offered by a few centres, foetal samples were sent to the UK and other countries for analysis. Foetal blood sampling by foetoscopy done between 18 and 22 wk gestation and diagnosis by globin chain synthesis were done for the next 4 to 5 years at 2 centres in Mumbai40,41. Chorionic villus sampling and DNA analysis in the first trimester In the 1990s first trimester foetal diagnosis by chorionic villus sampling (CVS) and DNA analysis was established at 4-5 centres in the north in Delhi42, in the west in Mumbai41,43,44 and in the south in Vellore45. These services then expanded to other cities like Lucknow and Chandigarh in the north46,47, and Kolkata in the east48. However, these services are still limited to major cities where couples are referred to or CVS samples are sent from surrounding areas. Molecular analysis ? -thalassaemia is extremely heterogeneous with more than 200 mutations described worldwide49. In India, about 64 mutations have been characterized by studies done at different centres30,31,49-51 (Table I). Six to seven mutations [IVS 1-5 (G? C), 619 bp deletion, IVS 1-1 (G? T), Codon 8/9 (+G), Codons 41/42 (-CTTT), COLAH et al: PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS OF HAEMOGLOBINOPATHIES IN INDIA (ii) Frameshift 1. Codon 5 (-CT) 2. Codons 7/8 (+G) 3. Codon 8 (-AA) 4. Codons 8/9(+G) 5. Codon 13 (C>T) 6. Codon 15 (-T) 7. Codon 16 (-C) 8. Codon 16 (C>T) 9. Codon 17 (A>T) 10. Codons 22-24 (7 bp del) 11. Codon 26 (G>T) 12. Codon 35 (A>G) 13. Codons 36/37 (-T) 14. Codons 36-39 (8 bp del) 15. Codon 39 (C>T) 16. Codon 44 (-C) 17. Codons 47/48 (+ATCT) 18. Codon 55 (+A) 19. Codon 55 (-A) 20. Codons 57/58 (+A) 21. Codon 88 (+T) 22. Codons 106/107 (+G) 23. Codon 110 (T>C) 24. Codon 111 (-G) 25. Codon 135 (C>T) F. RNA cleavage and polyadenylation mutation 1. AATAAA>AACAAA G. Deletional mutations 1. 619 bp deletion; 3’end 2. 10. 3 kb deletion 3. Codons 126-131 (17 bp deletion) Source: Refs 30, 31, 49-51 55 ?0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 ? + ? 0 ? + ? 0 ? 0 ? 0 Fig. 1. Regionaldistributionof? -thalassaemiamutationinIndia. molecular techniques like covalent reverse dot blot hybridization (CRDB), amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS), denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE), and DNA sequencing43,44 ,52. Foetal blood analysis in the second trimester Most of the prenatal diagnosis programmes in the Mediterranean countries started with second trimester foetal blood analysis but they were able to switch over tofirsttrimesterdiagnosisinashortspan5,39. In India, second trimester diagnosis is still done as manycouplesatriskareidentifiedlateduringpregnancy. Foetal blood sampling is done by cordocentesis at 18 to20wkgestationandafterconfirmingthatthereisno maternal contamination in the foetal sample by foetal cell staining using the Kleihauer-Betke method, it is analysed by HPLC on the Variant Hemoglobin Testing System (Bio Rad Laboratories, Hercules, USA). The HbA levels in foetuses affected with ? -thalassaemia major have ranged from 0 to 0. 5 per cent and these were distinguishable from heterozygous babies where the Hb A levels were >1. per cent in different studies. However, there was some overlap in Hb A levels between heterozygotes and normals53-55. Sickle cell disease and Hb E thalassaemia have also been diagnosed in this way. On the other hand, experience in Thailand showed that while ? 0 thalassaemia homozygotes and HbE-? 0 thalassaemia compound heterozygotes could be diagnosed by HPLC analysis of foetal blood, ? ++ thalassae mia homozygotes may be misdiagnosed as heterozygotes56. Amniotic fluid cells have not been used extensively in India for prenatal diagnosis of haemoglobinopathies. Codon 15 (G? A), Codon 30 (G? C)] are common accounting for 85-95 per cent of mutant alleles. However, regional differences in their frequencies have been noted30,31,50,51 (Fig. 1). The prevalence of IVS 1 -5 (G? C), the most common mutation in India varies from 15-88 per cent in different States. Codon 15 (G? A) is the second most frequent mutation in Maharashtra and Karnataka and Codon 5 (-CT) is the third most common mutation in Gujarat. The -88 (C? T) and the Cap site +1 (A? C) mutations are more common in the northern region30,31,50. The 619 bp deletion is the most common mutation among the immigrant population from Pakistan. This knowledge on the distribution of mutations in different regions and in people of different ethnic backgrounds has facilitated prenatal diagnosis using 556 INDIAN J MED RES, OCTOBER 2011 Experience at National Institute Immunohaematology (NIIH), Mumbai of Bothfirstandsecondtrimesterprenataldiagnosis for the ? -thalassaemias and sickle cell disorders are done at National Institute of Immunohaematology, Mumbai, and over the last 25 years 2,221 pregnancies at risk have been investigated (Table II). While majority of the couples were at risk of having children with ? thalassaemia major, a significant number of couples at risk of having children with sickle cell disorders have been referred for prenatal diagnosis in the last 4 to 5 years. Our experience in western India has shown that there are still very few couples (G; or codon 35 ? (A? G) at alpha -beta chain interfaces. Ann Hematol 2009; 88 : 1269-71. 52. Old JM, Varawalla NY, Weatherall DJ. The rapid detection and prenatal diagno sis of ? -thalassemia in theAsian Indian and Cyproit populations in the UK. Lancet 1990; 336 : 834-7. 53. Rao VB, Natrajan PG, Lulla CP, Bandodkar SB. Rapid midtrimester prenatal iagnosis of beta-thalassaemia and other haemoglobinopathies using a non- radioactive anion exchange HPLC technique – an Indian experience. Prenat Diagn 1997; 17 : 725-31. 54. Wadia MR, Phanasgaokar SP, Nadkarni AH, Surve RR, Gorakshakar AC, Colah RB, et al. Usefulness of automated chromatography for rapid fetal blood analysis for second trimester prenatal diagnosis of beta-thalassemia. Prenat Diagn 2002; 22 : 153-7. 559 55. Rao S, Saxena R, Deka D, Kabra M. Use of HbA estimation by CE-HPLC for prenatal diagnosis of beta-thalassemia; experience from a tertiary care centre in north India: a brief report. Hematology 2009; 14 : 122-4. 56. Winichagoon P, Sriphanich R, Sae-Mgo WB, Chowthaworm J, Tantisirin P, Kanokpongsakdi S, et al. Application of automated HPLC in prenatal diagnosis of thalassemia. Lab Hematol 2002; 8 : 29-35. 57. Holzgreve W. Will ultrasound screening and ultrasound guided procedures be replaced by non-invasive techniques for the diagnosis of fetal chromosome anomalies? Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol 1997; 9 : 217-9. 58. Steele CD, Wapner RJ, Smith JB, Haynes MK, Jackson LG. Prenatal diagnosis using fetal cells isolated from maternal peripheral blood. Clin. Obstet Gynecol 1996; 39 : 801-13. 59. Mesker WE, Ouwerkerk-vn Velzen MC, Oosterwijk JC, Bernini LF, Golbus MS, Kanhai HH, et al. Two colour immunocytochemical staining of gamma and epsilon type hemoglobin in fetal red cells. Prenat Diagn 1998; 18 : 1131-7. 60. Takabayashi H, Kuwabara S, Ukita T, Ikawa K, Yamafuji K, Igarashi T. Development of non-invasive fetal DNA diagnosis from maternal blood. Prenat Diagn 1995; 15 : 74-7. 61. Cheung MC, Goldberg JD, Kan YW. Prenatal diagnosis of sickle cell anemia and thalassemia by analysis of fetal cells in maternal blood. Nat Genet 1996; 14 : 264-8. 62. Di Naro E, Ghezzi F, Vitucci A, Tannoia N, Campanale D, D’ Addario V, et al. Prenataldiagnosisof? -thalassemiausing fetal erythroblasts enriched from maternal blood by a novel gradient. Mol Hum Reprod 2000; 6 : 571-4. 63. Kolialexi A, Vrettou C, Traeger-Synodinos J, Burgemeister R, Papantoniou N, Kanavakis E, et al. Non invasive prenatal diagnosisof? -thalassemiausingindividualfetalerythroblasts isolated from maternal blood after enrichment. Prenat Diagn 2007; 27 : 1228-32. 64. D’Souza E, Sawant PM, Nadkarni AH, Gorakshakar A, Mohanty D, Ghosh K, et al. Evaluation of the use of monoclonal antibodies and nested PCR for non-invasive prenatal diagnosis of hemoglobinopathies in India. Am J Clin Pathol 2008; 130 : 202-9. 65. Lo YM, Corbetta N, Chamberlain PF, Rai V, Sargent IL, Redman CW, et al. Presence of fetal DNA in maternal plasma and serum. Lancet 1997; 350 : 485-7. 66. Lo YM, Tein MS, Lau TK, Haines CJ, Leung TN, Poon PM, et al. Quantitaive analysis of fetal DNA in maternal plasma and serum: implications for non invasive prenatal diagnosis. Am J Hum Genet 1998; 62 : 768-75. 67. Lun FMF, Chiu RWK, Allen Chan KC, Lau TK, Leung TY, Dennis Lo YM. Microfluidics digital PCR reveals a higher than expected fraction of fetal DNA in maternal plasma. Clin Chem 2008; 54 : 1664-72. 68. Li Y, Zimmermann B, Rusterholz C, Kang A, Holzgrave W, Hahn S. Size separation of circulating DNA in maternal plasma permits ready detection of fetal DNA polymorphisms. Clin Chem 2004; 50 : 1002-11. 69. Chiu RW, Lau TK, Leung TK, Chow KC, Chui DH, Lo YM. Prenatal exclusion of beta thalassemia major by examination of maternal plasma. Lancet 2002; 360 : 998-1000. 560 INDIAN J MED RES, OCTOBER 2011 beta thalassemia point mutation by MALDI – TOF mass spectrometry. Fetal Diagn Ther 2009; 25 : 246-9. Papasavva T, Kalikas I, Kyrri A, Kleanthous M. Arrayed primer extension for the noninvasive prenatal diagnosis of beta thalassemia based on detection of single nucleotide polymorphism. Ann N Y Acad Sci USA 2008; 1137 : 302-8. Li Y, Di Naro E, Vitucci A, Zimmermann B, Holzgreve W, Hahn S. Detection of paternally inherited fetal point mutations for beta thalassemia using size fractionated cell free DNA in maternal plasma. J Am Med Assoc 2005; 293 : 843-9. Chan K, Yam I, Leung KY, Tang M, Chan TK, Chan V. Detection of paternal alleles in maternal plasma for noninvasive prenatal diagnosis in beta thalassemia: a feasibility study in southern China. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Repord Biol 2010; 150 : 28-33. Lo YMD. Non invasive prenatal diagnosis in 2020. Prenat Diagn 2010; 30 : 702-3. 70. Papasavva T, Kalakoutis G, Kalikas I, Neokli E, Papacharalambous S, Kyrri A, et al. Non-invasive prenatal diagnostic assay for the detection of beta thalassemia. Ann NY Acad Sci USA 2006; 1075 : 148-53. 71. Tungwiwat W, Fucharoen G, Fucharoen S, Ratanasiri T, Sanchaisuriya K, Sae- Ung N. Application of maternal plasma DNA analysis for noninvasive prenatal diagnosis of Hb E beta thalassemia. Transl Res 2007; 150 : 319-25. 72. Lazaros L, Hatzi E, Bouba I, Makrydimas G, Dalkalitsis N, Stefos T, et al. Noninvasivefirsttrimesterdetectionofpaternal beta globin gene mutations and polymorphisms as predictors of thalassemia risk at chorionic villus sampling. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Repord Biol 2008; 140 : 17-20. 73. Li Y, Di Naro E, Vitucci A, Grill S, Ahong XY, Holzgreve W, et al. Size fractionation of cell free DNA in maternal plasma improves the detection of a paternally inherited 74. 75. 76. 77. Reprint requests: Dr Roshan Colah, Scientist F, National Institute of Immunohaematology (ICMR), 13th Floor, NMS Bldg, KEM Hospital Campus, Parel, Mumbai 400 012, India e-mail: [email  protected] com

Relationship Between Department Essay

Having people know about different language skills will help them to be more knowledge and will help them to be easy understanding around people that are different from themselves. Make sure that we have training regularly about employee cultural differences so employees will finally to cooperation peaceful. Reduce the conflicts and disputes between of them. On the other hand, our company will be provide more money to encourage our employees learn more language s. Enhance their language skill. This plan will not only be able to assist them to strengthen their language and culture and communication skills, but also help in the works. We are the five stars and luxury hotels, most of the guests visiting from different countries, If our employees have excellent language skills after training, so that more in-depth understanding of the needs of customers and provide them with the best service. The second point on how to deal with employee cultural differences is to make sure that people know what the respect is. Ensure that everyone knows that some of colleagues always treat not fair on way. Or does not get special treatment because of their cultural difference. We will also want to make sure that you have something that goes out to remind people that everyone is equal. We can do this either by employee training or meeting; I can have a little presentation in staff training. I just need to make sure that it is addressed so people know that it is ok to have cultural differences in our hotel. However, quick to criticize and condemn the error of employees, and received the award slowly, many managers are always discriminated against ome of the staff, because they are not locals. Part of the local staff will imitate manager. Such discriminatory behavior, only a few people willing communicate with them. Therefore, they increase the pressure and the self-esteem hurt performance directly affects the workers left. On the other hand, if the situation continues, the relationship between employees will become fragmented. More reminiscent of the dictator. Simply dictating to them wh at they could get the job done, but there is no incentive to do it well. Employees are not exactly the same as the standard machine to perform over and over again the same job, if you do not recognize their effort. Their performance has been deteriorating. More modern and progressive workplace goals and reward schemes to motivate employee. In addition, the manager must make a good role model to promote the relationship between the employees become harmonious, happy work. The third point on how to deal with employee cultural differences is if some one is getting picked on because of their culture. You need to make sure that people know that it is not acceptable to treat others differently because of their culture. You will want to make sure that you take some action so that the problem does not continue. The worst thing is to have a unhappy employee because some one else has taken it upon themselves to be rude because of the racial discrimination. The fourth point on how to deal with employee cultural differences is enhance the exchange between employees, a better understanding of each other, I decided to organize more large-scale events in our company in future. For example, some large dinner, outdoor travel, outdoor activities such as football matches, participate to Marathon. These activities can make between employees a better understanding of each other, to establish a good relationship. If the employees between full unity, communication and reduce differences on return to work, they like these movements smooth co-develop team efforts, make excellent performance, driving the company‘s internal and external developments. There will be space for development cannot estimate. Therefore, Outdoor activities and group activities for communication.

Lululemon

Luncheon is poised and well positioned to move to another level in the luxury sports apparel marketplace. While our challenges over the last 18 months have been Impacting, we have maintained profitability and have not lost significant market share. In response, our leadership team conducted environmental and organizational scans over the last 30 days. From these scans, we have identified some future strategic opportunities and challenges that when addressed, will set us up to become the #1 sports luxury apparel brand in the world.We will continue our innovation by Introducing new products lines; there is a great opportunity for us to expand Into a children's line. Another opportunity for Luncheon Is to Investigate new channel strategies In diversification of sales revenues. In tandem with these opportunities, we urgently need to address several threats inclusive of diversifying our supply chain and improving public relations to resonate our core values and brand.Our environmental sca n included a macro trends report, examination of our industry/ competition, and a comprehensive review of our stakeholders' needs and expectations. Significant macro trends worth noting Include: sustained popularity of yoga fitness for the near term, continued growth in online sales, and sustained usage of social media (with women representing a disproportionately large amount of users engaging our brand). Due to the use of petroleum and cotton products, material and labor costs for Luncheon can sometimes be unpredictable based on fluctuations in these commodity markets.Our Industry analysis Indicates that the sports apparel brand Is a $106 billion dollar Industry with the two biggest players only owning 14 recent of the market share, [See Financial Analysis Slide]. We are the top ranked premium sports apparel organization and the 5th highest ranking organization overall. Our suppliers are more than suppliers; they are partners, [See Industry/ Competitive Analysis Slide]. Our collab orative relationship with our suppliers helps us create some of the most innovative products in the market.Supplier issues with materials and manufacturing have posed an ongoing issue due to various recalls creating a drop In company stock price, which In turn, has raised concerns with dockworkers, [See stakeholder Analysis slide]. These problems have caused Luncheon to face intense scrutiny in the market and media, which eventually resulted in negative Public Relations related issues. The inability for the Public Relations department to thwart such incidents has impacted the overall product brand within the market place.With that said, the financial health of the company Is good. Net revenue for the fiscal year 2013 Increased 16% to $1. 6 billion from $1. 4 billion In fiscal 2012. The company ended with $698,649,000 cash on hand, enough to fund its operating activities. Our operational support reveals Luncheon customer satisfaction remains high despite recent and ongoing manufactur ing issues, [See Stakeholder Analysis Slide]. We possess a loyal customer base and have recently moved all of our stores from the franchise model to being ran internally to maximize on our culture.From this environmental scan, we were able to conduct a comprehensive and In-depth Internal analysis to determine how well prepared we included an operational health report, a financial report, and a review of our culture. The current organization is structured so that there is an opportunity for open immunization throughout the business, while wellness programs create high employee satisfaction. Since our inception, our culture has been about creating components for people to live long, healthy, and fun lives.This culture permeates through our employees, our in-store experience, and of course our customer base. We believe in support of the communities in which we are a part by creating various festivals, retreats and continually focusing on sustainability. Overall, our internal report sho ws we are poised for growth and have the tools to take advantage of our opportunities while meeting our challenges head on. Luncheon is the leader in luxury sports apparel. In order for us to stay the premier luxury sports apparel provider, we have to make sure we keep our core competencies aligned.Our core competencies are defined as follows: 1 . Developing innovative luxury designs, 2. Grass roots marketing, 3. Creating a motivated workforce, 4. Creating a second to none positive customer experience. Our four recommendations outlined in the beginning of the memo align perfectly with these core competencies, and our reports show we have the ability to achieve success in each area. Developing new product lines, especially focusing on a line for the youth, will assure we stay diversified.In developing these lines we can start to diversify our suppliers by finding other markets in which to partner. Currently our depth in suppliers is large, however, the diversity is nominal. Our suppl iers are primarily concentrated in one region, Asia-Pacific, leaving us susceptible to natural disasters, border wars, and other issues that can affect production, [See Stakeholder Analysis Slide]. Creating additional channels of sales will work to enhance our second to none customer experience.Working with luxury hotels and other recognizable high end partners known for great customer service will also help with our grass roots marketing along with increasing our positive public relations presence. Also, by controlling our public relations and placing an increased emphasis on it, we will be able to better position our image and brand for lasting resonance in the marketplace. We are excited for Luncheon and look forward to partnering with you on implementing these four strategic objectives that will propel our great organization to another level.

Analysis of Strategic Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

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Adler Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Unit 7 Case Manegment Seminar Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Unit 7 Case Manegment Seminar - Research Paper Example However not all people accept change as some become very resistant. Recovery in this context refers to a process of change that an individual goes through in order to improve their health and wellness and try to reach their full potential. It can’t be confined only to people suffering from addictions only; it applies to all other people who are receiving human services. For example a person with a mental health issue and a disabled person will undergo recovery. So for a human service worker, recovery would be viewed as way of gradual change that helps clients to accept their situation and move on whereas for the client, it is the only and most important hope they can have once they get themselves in those situations. As a human service professional, when a client gets discouraged, I will ensure they learn to accept the situation and encourage them that they are not the only ones in that state. I will try and make them understand the purpose of life and ensure that I am in close contact with them so that they don’t feel neglected. I will also encourage and help them speak with others who have same experiences but have managed to overcome. When on a working service for a client, not one worker can be able to do all the activities. Different skills will be required at same time which on worker can’t deliver. For example, there could be people with different problems ranging from drug addict, mental illness, disabled etc. All these people would require different kinds of guidance and counseling which can’t be provided by one social worker hence need for many professional in that particular

Rich Pictures Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Rich Pictures - Article Example It was developed by Peter Checkland as a Soft Systems Methodology for gathering information about a complex situation (Checkland 1981, p. 37). Structure, processes and concerns are the main components of any Rich Picture diagram. Use Case method analyses the expectation of a primary actor with the proposed system. Actors are the stakeholders of the system, e.g. end users and other systems that are supposed to use the system. They are not considered as a part of the system, only their interaction with the system is taken in to consideration while developing the system. Use Case modeling is extensively used in software application modeling process and object oriented programming. A clear understanding of Use Case is necessary for using UML and other modern software development process. This dissertation will critically evaluate Rich Pictures and Use Cases as a requirements analysis tool. It will also compare and contrast adoptability, advantages and shortcomings of these analysis methods. With the help of a case study based on a Children Support Agency and analysis of its requirement using both methodologies it will highlight the usability of these methods to different situations. Soft System Methodology (SSM) deals with problem situations in which there is a high social, political, and human activity component (Checkland, 90). The SSM is effective in dealing with "soft problems" that are difficult to define but comparatively easier to solve as presented in Children Support Agency case study. Examples of problem situations where SSM is more effective includes socially more complex but technically easier problems such as dealing with homelessness, illiteracy and distressed young people. SSM as defined by Checkland (1990) is composed of seven stages from, finding out the problem situation, expressing the problem situation through Rich Pictures (i.e., representations of organizational structure and processes pertinent to the problem situation), viewing the situation and produce root definitions, building conceptual models of what the system must do for each root definition, comparing the conceptual models with the real world, identifying feasible and desirable c hanges, to making recommendations to improve the problem situation. Expressing the problem situation through Rich Pictures is a major phase of Soft System Analysis. Rich Pictures are most effective in analyzing the complex organizational structures, functions and processes. Rich Picture diagrams as illustrated by following figure are one of the best and most flexible ways for communicating systematic planning process. Following Rich Picture for the complete Children Support Agency environment outlines all major structures, processes, different stakeholders and their concerns. Figure 1: Rich Picture Diagram for CSA Management Information System. The above rich picture modelling gives a broad picture of the situation. It shows clearly the expectations of different stakeholders from proposed Management Information System. Development of rich pictures gives a systematic understanding of all questions and observations about the problem situation. The above representation of the scenario can be very helpful in identifying

Advertisement in the Far East Economic Review magazine in 1972 Essay

Advertisement in the Far East Economic Review magazine in 1972 - Essay Example This "Advertisement in the â€Å"Far East Economic Review† magazine in 1972" outlines and analyzed the ad which was published in this particular media, its style and strategies. This advertisement uses sexual appeal to attract potential customers to use the airline. The advertisement poem is based entirely on sexuality to attract customers to choose MSA for there are beautiful airhostesses waiting to serve them early in the morning. Not just that, the picture that accompanies the text, shows a very pleasant looking woman standing amidst the passengers who are all men. This too is hinting at some sort of sexual discrimination that the airline seeks to exploit in order to get new customers (Goffman, 1979). Besides the critical sexist outlook of the advertisement, the poetry used in the advertisement is pretty catchy. Small verses are always helpful since the readers get them on their tongues quicker and they can relate to what they read when they are looking for a reliable service or product. The ad by MSA uses short verses, catchy words and sexual attraction to persuade customers to the airline. Although the ad is about attracting all kinds of customers to MSA, the picture depicts a slightly different story. It shows customers who are well suited indicating that MSA would be a great service for professional elites. By doing so, it would attract customers who are at the wealthier side and can afford more airline visits. This is indeed a clever strategy by the airline. That is again a very important aspect in the advertisement.

Ethnography. People are Attending Religious Services on Sunday Research Paper

Ethnography. People are Attending Religious Services on Sunday - Research Paper Example The main purpose behind conducting a comprehensive research on this topic includes the exploring the general views and opinions of the church attendants about their religious belief and its impact on their social, professional and domestic life. The study is also interested in finding out the people’s level of satisfaction regarding the religious services being offered at modern churches. The paper also throws light on the reasons behind the considerable decrease in the number of the people attending the religious services in the churches of London city. The research will be conducted in Kensington and Chelsea districts of London city, over 58% population of which consists of the followers of various Christian sects. Thesis Statement: It is a universally accepted notion that performing of religious obligations and praying to God en masse serves as a source of mental relief and spiritual uplift for humans. Somehow, the trends of collective prayers are in decline during the cont emporary era. People’s engagement in financial activities, absence of encouragement from the elders, and flow of various foreign ethno-racial and religious groups have decreased the people’s interest in attending religious services at the church (Barnes & Lowry, 2006, p.1). ... In that context, the term is most closely related to ‘trust’ – trusting God and God’s promises. In this sense, faith is more of an attitude than a state of belief or knowledge.† (Lacewing, 2006, p.1) By looking into the available statistics on faiths and religions, it becomes crystal clear that there exist hundreds of belief systems, (Trimarco, 2005, p.1), the followers of which make over six billion in number. Christianity, Islam, Judaism, Jainism, Hinduism and others are among the most dominant faiths of the world; while Christianity is the most popular one in respect of the number of followers at global perspective. History shows that the apostles and saints underwent severe trials for the projection and promotion of Christianity; it is therefore the religion witnessed unabated growth all over the globe. Somehow, the followers of Christianity are stated to be observing lack of interest in going to the churches for prayers and meditation, as Midwest Diocese Organisation states: â€Å"Church is place where the Holy Spirit dwells in God’s people as they respond to His call to salvation and eternal life.† Taking the phenomenon as a challenging issue in Kensington and Chelsea districts of the London city, I have decided to conduct a participant observation of the religious rituals performed by the Christians on Sundays at church. Brief Overview to Christianity: The Christian faith is the second one in the list of three Abrahamic faiths, along with Judaism and Islam (Latourette, 1975, p. 8). It maintains unconditional belief in the divinity and Oneness of God; and Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit as the two other members of Holy Trinity. Christianity seeks spiritual guidance from the Bible, which consists of the Old and New Testaments. The

English Language - Business Writing ( memmo and informal reports ) Essay

English Language - Business Writing ( memmo and informal reports ) - Essay Example ch allow readers to validate where the information stems from as well as to provide readers with the ability to personally investigate information† (Bolt, 2007). In the workplace, weblogs can allow the company to gain a deeper understanding of what â€Å"clients actually want, need and will pay money for† (Innovation Creators, 2007). This article on ‘How to use Blogs in the Workplace’ states the opportunity for personal motivation and focused business communication amongst the uses for weblogs besides public relations and marketing. When used to facilitate focused business communication, weblogs can be effectively used â€Å"as a platform to help people withing your company communicate about what they are doing for work† (ibid). Not many CEO’s use blogging mainly for reasons of time and the fact that it is more likely to be under scrutiny by employees (Jeremiah, 2007). However, if used carefully, it is quite simply an easy and powerful means of communicating. In fact, weblogs are a mass communications channel for company information, public relations as well as internal communications. And, the medium of technology makes the whole process of blogging easier. Through the Internet it is easy to reach a huge global audience not limited to the company or immediate market. Debbie Weil author of The Corporate Blogging Book says that, â€Å"an effective blog enables you to have a two-way conversation with customers and employees†. Also, weblogs can make effective use of a combination of images, audio and video content too besides text. The sheer quantity of webblogs is very large but Internet search tools are powerful in finding the precise information required. Weblogs also help to build connected businesses. Hyperlinks make it possible to link with related information from other writers. I strongly urge to consider the option of blogging to supplement your existing communication methods to reach out to your audience more effectively. It is a popular trend and

Regulatory and legislative issues paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Regulatory and legislative issues paper - Essay Example â€Å"Thousands of US organizations must comply with the†¦ Security Rule. The Security Rule is a key part of HIPAA -- federal legislation that was passed into law in August 1996. The overall purpose of the act is to enable better access to health insurance, reduce fraud and abuse, and lower the overall cost of health care in the United States† (HIPAA, 2010). The overall common estimation is that the Security Rule has affected healthcare positively, leading to greater client confidentiality and better information access for healthcare facilities. However, cost is a major issue in implementing new technology covered by the rule, such as the establishment of electronic health records. It is important to provide a general overview of the HIPAA Security Rule, its strengths and drawbacks, and how it is being implemented, and reacted against, in the present. databases, and communications. Patients are expected, and have been shown to, have a greater quality of healthcare because of the rule, because due to it, information and healthcare data is delivered faster, better, and more conveniently. Although some state that the rule is excessive, because the government would have to provide for client confidentiality with or without the law, others state that, â€Å"The real value of HIPAAs transaction standards is the reduction of operational expenses and fragmentation in the health care industry† (Zimmerman, 2010). This shows the law to be cost effective, and it is also gathered to be cost-effective from the standpoint of government costs for social welfare programs like Medicare. Although cost effectiveness and better, safer, faster patient information seem to be key advantages to the HIPAA Security Rule, there are also possible drawbacks as this law extends over time. For example, although ultimately the new technology covered by the rule is designed to make facilities more

Dignity in Ivan and the Sound of Waves Essay Example for Free

Dignity in Ivan and the Sound of Waves Essay In the novels, One Day in the life of Ivan Denisovich by Alexander Solzhenitsyn and The Sound of Waves by Yukio Mishima, the characters value their dignity and take many actions to preserve it. First of all, in One Day in the life of Ivan Denisovich, Shukhov attempts to maintain his human dignity in the face of oppression. As Shukhov begins his daily routine, he â€Å"quickly finished up the job. There’s work and work If you’re working for human beings, then do a real job of it† (Solzhenitsyn 33). Shukhov is imprisoned in a gulag, one of the worst possible places to be, but he still maintains his human dignity by keeping a good work ethic. Shukhov knows that if he works well he will be treated well, but beyond that, the fact that he is working for another human being gives him reason to maintain a good work ethic, and his self-respect. Furthermore, Shukhov always preforms many small, but meaning full actions in order to maintain his dignity. While eating his rations, Shukhov â€Å"removed his cap from his shaven head—however cold it was, he wouldn’t let himself eat with his cap on† (16). Shukhov still maintains his manners, even when he is forcibly kept in a gulag prison. His manners are very important as they allow him a way to remain human and keep his dignity, rather than deteriorating to the state of an animal, like some of the other prisoners. While the characters in One Day in the life of Ivan Denisovich, attempt to maintain their dignity as a means of refuge in the gulags, the characters of The Sound of Waves, retain their dignity as a means of protecting their status in society. To begin, the characters in the Sound of Waves do not tolerate any embarrassment or loss of respect to their peers. When Shinji’s mother visits Terukichi Miyata’s home he ignores her visit and she replies, â€Å"[s]o you say you won’t see a poor widow†¦Well let me tell you something†¦ never in life will I ever cross [Miyata’s] damned threshold again† (Mishima 128-129). Shinji’s mother vows never to cross paths with Miyata’s home after he insults her by refusing to meet with her. Shinji’s mother takes a hit to her pride and retaliates in a way that would imply her intolerance for disrespect. Moreover, the characters in the novel are virtuous and refrain from committing any acts that would call into question their morals and self-respect. While resting naked with Shinji in the shrine, Hatsue says, It’s bad. It’s bad! It’s bad for a girl to do that before she is married† (76-77). Although the urge to engage in a sexual relation with Shinji is strong, Hatsue knows it would hurt not only her self-respect but also defile her father’s reputation in the village. Although characters in both novels take actions to preserve their respective dignities, in One Day in the life of Ivan Denisovich, It is done to maintain their humanity and sanity when they are treated like animals. While in The Sound of Waves, the characters preserve their dignity to uphold the respect of the village and their peers. Overall, the characters in both novels value their dignity and take many actions to uphold it.

Solid Waste Management And Urban Development Environmental Sciences Essay

Solid Waste Management And Urban Development Environmental Sciences Essay Solid waste management is an integral part of the urban environment and planning of infrastructure to ensure a safe and healthy human environment while considering the sustainable economic growth. Waste disposal has posed a problem in most countries and it is affecting the economy and development of the country. How? In an unhealthy environment, the citizen will fall ill, will not attract investors, knowledge and ideas will not be explored and the cost of living will be high but in a healthy environment, investors will always want to be there, healthy manpower to explore, great place to visit (tourism), economy growth and development. The aspect of recycling as referred means of waste disposal than has not been fully adopted by most countries because they have not recognized the positive impact recycling has on the environment. The focus of this research is to look at recycling municipal solid waste as a means to achieve sustainable development and economic growth. This study will be based on an investigative method, surveys, questionnaire, secondary data, interviews and observations. This is to bring out the benefits of recycling waste than disposing waste to landfill. INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF STUDY Sustainable development requires an environmental sound, cost effective and socially acceptable management of solid waste product. Waste is the consensus that has to be reduced or avoided and non- avoided waste has to be reuse or recycled as far as possible under well-balanced economic and ecological conditions (NORDTEST 2004). Recycling contributes to a healthy, united community but has not fully been recognized as a way of reducing waste product and creating development. Waste is seen by the society as material perceived to have little or no value. The waste generated are in large quantities, facing disposal problem in such that it has become a nuisance problem. The improper solid waste disposal is as a result of dumping waste along the road side, dumps sites and illegal landfill sites, has led to pollution of the environment and prevention of development in a country forgetting that waste can be recycled. It is seen that a large number of people do not recycle their waste; they pack up all types of waste into one bin. Most of this waste when disposed of separately can be recycled (Bzowy 2007). This in-separation of waste could be as a result of unawareness by the people on the need to recycle, the need to identify the recyclable waste and separate it, and the appropriate bin to dispose it. The amount of waste generated from the different source could be a good source of business after separation and the collection. The possibility of exploring recycling solid waste product has not be taken into full account in the form of sustainable development and revenue generation. In some countries where solid waste disposal is mainly to dump site and landfill, they constitute environmental impact than recycling. In dump site and landfill, the environmental impact is the emission of methane gas contributing to global warming, reduction of available land for development, contamination of land and ground water, breeding ground for rats, flies and other vermin which can be a potential threat to transfer of disease to human and environment. To tackle this issue, legislation was introduced in local and national basis of different countries with the aim of increasing recycling and re-use of solid waste and products for sustainable development. In EU, landfill directives aim is to reduce landfill waste disposal by imposing landfill tax to reduce the amount of biodegradable waste going to landfill to 75% because the decay produce methane, a strong greenhouse gas that contributes to climate change and land is becoming limited making landfills difficult to establish (POST 2005). Most European countries are diverting from landfill waste disposal to recycling. Recycling is seen as an economic development tool as well as environmental tool; it offers direct opportunities for communities. When wastes are recycled, the cost of disposal is reduced because the recycled wastes are sold to manufacturers as raw materials generating revenue. Recycling creates door that attract investors to the country through the remanufacture of the waste, creating jobs and tax revenue. A communitys duty to a cleaner environment often reflects its commitment to a higher standard of living and attracts companies that reprocess recyclables and suppliers who reuse these materials in their product (US EPA 2009). Recycling is a good measure in controlling waste generation, although it is third in the hierarchy of waste management but it is well adopting by any country to control waste generation to build up. Recycling is a very profitable business: which is actually declared: one mans garbage is another mans gold. Recycling of waste whatever its form is a very sound approach to mounting problem therefore encouraging development. This is what I am researching, on the usefulness of waste in the community (country) especially focusing on recycling as a means of sustainable development and revenue generation. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM This study was concern mainly on the development and revenue generation through recycling waste product. Why should waste be recycled? How can sustainable development be achieved through recycling solid waste? Can revenue be generated from recycled waste? How can encouraging the citizens towards recycling waste be achieved and who is responsible? AIMS AND OBJECTIVES The study aims at The justification that recycling municipal solid waste is a means of development and revenue generation. Identifying the recyclable materials, Creating awareness to people on separation of waste and making it know that; Recycling waste can leads to development and revenue generation (employment). To ensure that about 80% of waste are recycled. THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK Recycling solid waste is aimed at discouraging the disposal of waste to landfill, dump site and promote a sustainable environment that will attract investors, create opportunities, create employment, generate income and help in the reduction of greenhouse gas effect to the environment. It is also designed to educate the people on the need for sustainable development. The baseline data collected from the result will serve as a guide of other researches in their quest for additional knowledge. It can also be for those interested in the field of total waste reduction or zero waste emission. SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF STUDY This study is delimited is to recycling of solid waste as a means to sustainable development and revenue generation in different parts of the world but using Coventry as my study area due to availability of quick data. ADVANTAGES OF RECYCLING WASTE Economic Advantages- Reduces cost for waste disposal and raw material purchase. It saves cost on energy. It increases revenue through tax from landfill. It create employment, example collection, sorting Environmental Advantages- Reduces the amount of waste produces. Reduces the amount of waste disposed at landfill It increases storage of carbon in trees. It minimises the risk of present and future environmental pollution and harm human health. It makes good use of waste produced. DISADVANTAGES OF RECYCLING WASTE Economic Disadvantages- It cost more when prices are low for a particular material. Initial capital- Purchasing the equipment. Environmental Disadvantages- Transportation of waste example energy use, noise and emission from vehicle. Disposal of waste, example noise pollution, emissions. DEFINITION OF TERMS WASTE The EC Waste Framework Directive defines waste as any substance or object which the holder discards or intends to discard (Williams 2005). RECYCLING Recycling is the process of collecting used materials which is usually considered as waste and reprocessing it. In this process, the waste are sorted and processed to be used as raw materials for the production of new product (Ghosh 2008). LITERATURE REVIEW RECYCLING SOLID WASTE AS A MEANS TO SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND REVENUE GENERATION Waste is seen as inefficiency and less inefficiency the more waste. Inefficiency combined with the continuous growth of waste means depleting earths resources and the resources are limited. In order to preserve it for the next generation, they deserve to be used efficiently. Production, consumption and waste disposal patterns in the UK are currently not suitable for sustainable living. The wastes are currently disposed to landfill which produce a large proportion of greenhouse gas and rely on the input of non-renewable resource that could be reused, recycled or recovered for energy. The goal is to create a sustainable environment from waste through recycling and live within our environment without compromising our quality of life (DEFRA 2009). Reduce Re-use Recycle Energy Recovery (Incineration) LandfillIn the hierarchy of waste, recycling is the third for the control of waste. This recycling process involves the creation of employment that leads to development and sustainable income. Figure 1 The hierarchy of waste management. Source: Williams, 2005. The European Waste Framework Directive (1975) has at its centre the hierarchy of waste management and the basis of its strategy, is to encourage movement up the hierarchy and thereby increase the levels of waste reduction, re-use and recycling (Williams 2005). It was clear that there has to be an accurate definition and classification of waste to know the actual type of waste that will be recycled and useful. Recycling is widely assumed to be environmentally beneficial, although collecting, sorting and processing materials does give rise to environmental impacts and energy use (POST 2005). It can take place within the manufacturing industry or can take place at the post- consumer stage, example paper can be collected separately from the waste and then re-enter the paper processing machine (Williams 2005). In 1987 the Commission on Environment and Development issued a report that defined sustainable development as those forms of development that allows people to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability to meet the need of the future generations (Weinberg, Pellow and Schnaiberg 2000:4). Recycling waste product brings about sustainable development and revenue by creating route for collected commodities to be sold in the marketplace. A comprehensive and efficient recycling programs offer more opportunities for the community to benefit financially, while improving the aesthetic appeal of their neighbourhoods through boosting tax revenue- that is used for community projects such as public parks, alternative transportation and educational grants (US EPA 2009). Studies has confirmed that in United State, recycling has emerged as a consensual policy with its promise to reduce landfilled waste, create jobs, produce revenue for cities and profit for business. Example in Florida, the Recycling Economic information Study completed in 2000 shows that about $62 million in state tax revenue was as a result of the direct effect of the recycling and reuse industry (US EPA 2009). It has constituted a model of sustainable community development because it is one of the very few ideas proposed by advocates that embrace all of the three Es- Economy, Equity and Environment (Weinberg, Pellow and Schnaiberg 2000:7). As EPAs Recycling Economic Information Study says recycling industries not only offer higher paying jobs, than national average, but they also prevent communities from disposing beneficial materials into landfills (US EPA 2009). In New York, recycling programme was established involving the trade associations from various packaging industries to promote recycling in all communities. This removed more pressure on local landfills; the market for recyclable increased, remanufacturers started using recyclable and found that it was cheaper than virgin materials. The recycling technology company started developing, employing many people and the industrys revenue increased (Weinberg, Pellow and Schnaiberg 2000:21). Recycling is the need of the hour as many environmental issues is been reeled out. The destruction of the rain forest for the production of paper, has led to the extinction of many species. The rainforest plays an important role in maintaining the ecosystem. This means that we are all interdependent and this necessitates recycling at every step. The plastic industry and paper industry are striving well through recycling and the end product is used to manufacture new product especially plastic which are not biodegradable can be reprocessed into tables and chairs, tooth brush, carpet (Gaikwad 2009). According to a lecture delivered as part of module M51GED, for every one ton of paper recycled, it saves 17 trees, 3 cubic yard of landfill space, 7,000 gallons of water, 4200kWh (enough to heat a home for half of a year), 390 gallons of oil and prevents 30kg of air pollutants (Bateman 2009). Studies have shown that recycling has created job in different areas where people were not employed and has increase their income generation. In 2002, Washington County started recycling with one trailer and one employee but today, the recycling company has growth. The Washington County had collaborated with neighbouring counties leading to the involvement of six counties in recycling and providing opportunities to the rural areas that otherwise would not receive services (US EPA 2009). It has also brings community to together. This was done after the Hurricane Katrina devastation; Harrison County in Mississippi started a road to recovery and identified recycling as a means for rebirth. The EPA aided in setting up of a recycling centre for white goods and other materials to could be salvaged from the disaster. Harrison took further step in improving the county by restoring curb-side recycling and implementing household hazardous waste drive each year to which has now improve the coun ty (US EPA 2009). It is seen that recycling waste is developing some countries, example the solid waste and recycling firm industry in United State is making inroad into Asian nations because these countries are opening their growing consumer market (Weinberg, Pellow and Schnaiberg 2000). The European Community Environmental Action Programmes also call for significant changes in current patterns of development, production, consumption and behaviour in order to achieve sustainable development (Williams 2005). In 2001, the EU made a sixth action programme on sustainable development which waste prevention and management was the key issue and it emphasized the need to achieve a situation where the most of the waste generated are either reintroduced into the economic cycle through recycling or are returned to the environment in a useful (composting) or harmless form (Morrissey and Philips 2007). Recycling does not only affect our environment positively, it has re-created the lost resources, increase wealth, population and technology of various lifestyles. It has also led to unmanageable amount of waste. Recycling has helped in restoring the habitat and forest (Gaikwad 2009). It embodies an ethic, a way of relating to the world, worthy of support. Yet city after city have embraced it and it can be justified that it is a good investment (Seldman and Lease 2002). This can be achieve through The legislation on waste management in which recycling is a major key. The awareness of people towards recycling municipal solid waste especially the households. The provision of the different waste bins at the appropriate place. Organization of seminars, programme, publications, leaflets on waste management and recycling. ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY ON RECYCLING SOLID WASTE The European legislation has a strong influence on the national waste policies. Each policy is in line with each countrys legislation on solid waste. Waste Framework Directives- This established the general rule of waste management that was introduced in 1975 (75/442/EEC). This directive was amended in 1991 and 1996 subsequently. The framework directive has central principles: The waste management hierarchy which involves prevention, re-use, recycling and recuperation of energy and materials get priority. Using the Best Available Technology (BAT) for waste disposal using technological, environmental and economic selection criteria. Waste must be treated at the place of production or collection. Applying the polluter Pays Principle to any polluters through waste disposed (Dubois, Gonzalez and Knadel 2004). The European Commission Communication of 12 December 2005 setup Taking sustainable use of resources forward: A Thematic Strategy on the prevention and recycling of waste. To reduce the negative impact of waste on the environment through its life-span from production to disposal through recycling. It made that every item of waste is not only seen as a source of pollution reduction but as a potential resource to be exploited. To promote recycling sector in order to reintroduce waste into the economic cycle in the form of quality products. The strategy also provides for other measures, such as exchange of information on national disposal taxes as well as, measures which would supplement the market should there be inadequate increasing recycling levels (Europa 2007). UNITED KINGDOM LEGISLATION ON WASTE The UK legislation implemented the European Waste Framework Directive through the national legislation: Environmental Protection Act 1990. The Control of Pollution (Amendment) Act 1989 The Waste Management Licensing Regulations 1994 (as amended) The Controlled Waste (Registration of Carriers and Seizure of Vehicles) Regulations 1991. The legislation requires that anyone who treats, keeps, deposits or disposes of waste needs a waste management licence (unless exempt or excluded) which includes conditions relating to operation at the site which is issued by the Environmental Agency and monitors the activities to ensure compliance for the safety of the environment (Net 2004). The legislation set up national waste strategies with a target aim of raising the national recycling rate up to 25% by 2005/06 using the baseline 1998/99 and diverting waste from landfill as required from Landfill Directives and include recycling, recovery and composting of different types of waste especially biodegradable waste for sustainable waste management (Net 2004). The Power of Recycling Waste under the Environmental Protection Act 1990: This deals on the effects for conferring on waste disposal and waste collection authorities power for the purpose of recycling waste. That the waste disposal and collection authorities are to buy or acquire waste with a view of recycling it. To make waste disposal contractors recycle waste (EPA 1990). The Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive 94/62/EC obliges UK to meet the target for recovery and recycling for packaging waste. It was introduced by the UK Government in 1997 to meet 2001 in which most targets agreed by the European Union to be met by 31 December 2008 with overall target was 60% for recovery and 55%-80% for recycling. In November 2005, a new target was set for 2010 with minimum amount of recovery to be achieved through recycling of 92% (Net 2004). The Household Waste Recycling Act was introduced in UK in 2003- that all English authorities to provide kerbside collections for the minimum of two recyclable materials by 2010 (POST 2005). WASTE GENERATION Waste is produce in the course of acquisition of raw materials, refining and manufacturing and product used by consumers. Wastes are produced in large quantities from the different sources that use this manufactured product. Our everyday activities can produce large variety of waste from different sources; it could be solid or liquid waste and this serve as a useful tool for sustainable development if recycled especially municipal waste. In 1990s, it was estimated that each person in the world generated 200kg of solid waste per year and this was forecasted to increase with the growth in population (Manyanhaire 2009:2). From the estimate of Europe waste, 3.5 tonnes is generated per person and this is mainly made up of waste coming from household, commercial activities (Shops, restaurants, hospitals), industry (pharmaceutical companies, clothes manufacturer), agriculture (slurry), construction and demolition projects and mining and quarrying activities and from the generation of energy. With the production of such large quantities of waste produced, it is important to manage it in a way not to cause any harm to either human health or the environment (EIONET 2009). Wastes are produced from different sources and they are classified according to their sources and production. They are- Municipal Waste These wastes are from residential such as household, commercial such as small business, office buildings and institutional such as schools, hospital, government buildings sources that are discarded (Masters 1990). Municipal waste comprises of residue waste, bulky waste, sweeping, litter collections, secondary materials from separate collection and household hazardous waste. The waste is made up of paper, glass, textiles, cardboard, organic waste (food and garden waste) and wood (EIONET 2009). Household waste is about 82% of the total municipal solid waste (Eurostat 2003). Agricultural Waste This consists of organic waste such as manure from livestock, slurry, soiled water and silage effluent, crop residue, plastic, scrap machinery, fencing, pesticides, waste oil and veterinary medicines (EIONET 2009). The waste generators are from crops, orchard, farm, feedlot (Daniel and Thomas 1999). Some are use as animal feed or for compositing (Williams 2005). Industrial Waste This consists of different manufacturing industries- Light and heavy manufacturing, fabrication, power and chemical plant. This waste is made up of food, cardboard, beverages and tobacco, hazardous waste (chemical), metals, wood and paper. It is similar to that of municipal waste (US EPA 2009). Construction and Demolition Waste This involves waste from residue during construction and waste when demolition takes place. The waste generators are construction of new buildings, renovation of site and total or partial demolition. The wastes consist of wood, steel, dirt (Daniel and Thomas 1999). Mining and Quarry Waste This waste is produced during extraction and processing materials such as coal, slate and metalliferous materials. Wastes are also found in rocks in-bedded with mineral resources and residue leftovers. (Wasteonline 2002). METHODOLOGY The study will make use of an investigative method as its aim to find out the rate of recycling and what material is recycled more. Data will be collected at some recycling centres. The research will include surveys from the process of collecting solid waste and recycling waste, the concern, belief and behaviour of people towards recycling waste. To answer the research questions, Data will be gathered from areas where waste recycling studied area of this research (which includes areas where waste recycling and non-recycling are been carried out). Participant observation will be carried out. Questionnaire will be distributed to the residents to know the rate of waste recycling and how actively involved they are in the exercise. Interviews will also be conducted (face to face). Secondary data will be used for this research and it will be on- Documentary sources such as journals, newspapers, organisation records, books, images. Survey Sources such as census, government surveys, official statistics and document. Multiple sources that are combined into one dataset. Data generated for this study will be compared with data from pervious study. Appropriate tables, charts and figures will be used in effective representation of analysis of all data along with narrative interviews data obtained. The data collected will be converted to numerical data for analysis and discussion. RESEARCH TIMETABLE Activity March April May June July August Confirm Proposal XXXXXXXX Research Activities XXXXXX XXXXXX Analyse findings and informal write up XXXX XXXXXXX Write Up XXX XXXXXXXX XXXX Complete Write up XXXXXXXX Draft and Update XXXXXXXX Deadline and submission XXXXXXXX

European Studies Essays Frank Underdevelopment Dependency

European Studies Essays Frank Underdevelopment Dependency Frank Underdevelopment Dependency 1.0 Introduction This project report looks to the theories, concepts and studies of the well-known German prolific and controversial development Economist and Sociologist of post-war era, ‘Andre Gunder Frank’. Frank was best known as an early exponent and founder of the dependency theory, which maintained that rich, developed countries gained from poor, under-developed countries; so long as they remained in the international capitalist system (Economy Professor, 2006). This report will concentrate mainly on the understanding and analysis of the most significant concepts and theories of Frank on Underdevelopment; thereafter his concepts will be applied to countries of Latin America and Asia, which were the most affected from the plague of Underdevelopment. Get help with your essay from our expert essay writers 2.0 Preface of Andre G Frank theories Frank is considered to be one of the major founders of the world system theory along with Immanuel Wallerstein, Samir Amin and Giovanni Arrighi. He is the author of many works in world system and world accumulation. Andre Gunder Frank was interested in the processes of capital accumulation in Latin America and other regions, such as Asia. These regions were analyzed by Frank within the world context. The name of Frank is closely connected with the development and dependency theories. He is the author of very interesting publications and books devoted to the connection between economically developed countries and underdeveloped countries. When Andre Gunder Frank wrote his Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America and The Development of Underdevelopment he was influenced by the revolutionary ideas in Latin America and some other countries at that period. Being a social scientist, Andre Gunder Frank was interested in multiple subjects, events, topics, but he is considered to be one of the major contributors to the topic ‘development of underdevelopment’ and world system theory. His analysis of contemporary position of some countries has influenced the sociology science. He was one of the researchers who furthered the development and dependency theories. In his book Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America Andre Frank has shown his radical position towards development and underdevelopment. He wrote that the world and national capitalism has generated underdevelopment in the past, and still produces underdevelopment at present. (Frank, 1967a) Andre Gunder Frank has expressed an opinion that the economically developed countries were undeveloped but not underdeveloped. He believed that the present underdevelopment of a country is the outcome of its historical development in the past and at present, and the result of its relations with metropolitan countries (Frank 1966, pp. 17-31). Frank was the first scientist who realized the significance of the world economy. He understood that there is the possibility of autonomous development among the countries in the South: ‘The importance of the central theme of the world economy and of its interdependence †¦ has become ever stronger. What has changed is my belief, which was largely implicit in the idea of dependence, that a state of independence, or at least non-dependence, could be achieved through de-linking from the world economy through concerted political actions in the Third World countries or regions. On this last issue, I suppose I have changed the most, especially since the coup in Chile. Experience has shown it to be extremely difficult, if not impossible, for voluntarist political action to de-link particular countries from world economy’ (Kay 1989, p.1181). 2.1 Development and Dependency theories The development theory unites several theories, which state that some beneficial changes in a particular society are to be achieved for the common benefit. These theories (Modernization theory, Dependency theory, World Systems theory, and State theory) are based on a variety of social scientific approaches and disciplines. Frank criticized the modernization theory, which was the key perspective in sociology at that period of time. He called in question the major premises of the modernization thesis elaborated by Talcott Parsons, Bert Hoselitz, Wilbert Moore, Everret Hagen, Daniel Lerner, David McClelland and Walt Whitman Rostow. Moreover, Frank criticized the thesis which stated that ‘the underdeveloped countries with their traditional societies would gradually become developed and modern countries by engaging with the developed capitalist economies and modern societies’ (Frank, 1967b, pp. 20–73). Therefore, he has presented the new analysis of the relationships between economically developed and underdeveloped countries. Dependency theory is a part of the development theory, which was elaborated after the modernization theory. The dependency theory is based on the idea that the consequences of colonialism on undeveloped countries must be taken into consideration when further development is expected to take place. Dependency theory is tightly connected with Latin America. Scientists have recognized Frank’s contribution to dependency theory. Andre Gunder Frank was a scholar who developed and enriched the research of this theory. He stressed that the modernization theory was a process via which developing countries became more dependent upon economically developed countries. Moreover, the dependency theory divided all countries into several categories according to their level of development. This theory examines countries by dividing them into periphery and centre states: the centre consists of the already developed and colonizing countries, whereas the periphery consists of the developing and co lonized countries. Dependency theory became a tool for political commentary and a framework of explanations. Frank was a scientist who has found the basic concepts for the dependency theory. His innovation to the world system theory and to the development theory was based on the incorporation and the connection between economically developed and underdeveloped countries with the help of the notion of capitalism and all the economic, political, social and cultural changes which became the consequences of the appearance of capitalism relations. 2.2 The Development of Underdevelopment Theory In his book The Development of Underdevelopment (Development Studies, 1966, p. 27) Frank stated: â€Å"Since the historical experience of the colonial and underdeveloped countries has demonstrably been quite different, available theory therefore fails to reflect the past of the underdeveloped part of the world entirely, and reflects the past of the world as a whole only in part. More important, our ignorance of the history of these underdeveloped countries leads us to assume that their past and indeed their present resemble earlier stages of the history of the now economically developed countries. More studies of development and underdevelopment fail to take account of the economic and other relations between the metropolis and its economic colonies throughout the history of the mercantilist and capitalist system.† Frank gave emphasis to the fact that, in his belief every country passes through all the stages of development, and every stage of this process will vary in time, depending on the position of the country. Besides, he stressed that there is no concept of ‘an underdeveloped country’ if we talk about the economically developed countries – these are countries which were at one point merely undeveloped, but not underdeveloped: â€Å"†¦ economic development occurs in a succession of capitalist stages and †¦ today’s underdeveloped countries are still in a stage †¦ of history through which the now developed countries passed long ago. †¦ underdevelopment is not original or traditional and that neither the past nor the present of the underdeveloped countries resembles in any important respect the past of the now developed countries. The now developed countries were never underdeveloped, though they may have been undeveloped† (Development St udies p. 28). The notion of ‘the development of underdevelopment’ which he has elaborated during the research is the main concept in the development theory (Kay, 1989, p. 1180). Frank pointed out that the contemporary underdevelopment position of a country is the result of its economic, cultural, political and social characteristic features. Moreover, the underdevelopment as the result of past and present relations is an integral part of the world structure: â€Å"†¦ present underdevelopment of Latin America is the result of its centuries-long participation in the process of world capitalist development†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Development Studies, p. 30). He pointed out that the capitalist system has developed rapidly during the last centuries and its effect has reached the most isolated parts of the underdeveloped world. Moreover, the metropolis-satellite relations have been spread in the Latin American colonies and countries, having structured the economic, political, and social life of these countries. Frank has come to a very interesting conclusion that underdevelopment is generated by the historical process which has generated economic development and the development of capitalism. â€Å"The other kind of isolation which tends to confirm the second hypothesis is the geographic and economic isolation of regions which at one time were relatively weakly tied to and poorly integrated into the mercantilist and capitalist system† (Development Studies, p. 31-33). Therefore, the two types of countries are connected with each other through exploitation and colonization. Frank has found the connection between the development of the centre and the periphery countries. Besides this, Andre Gunder Frank explained in his book The Development of Underdevelopment, that Latin America and other similar countries are underdeveloped countries owing to the foreign competition, and the introduction of free trade, which is in the interest of the ruling groups of the economically developed countries: â€Å"†¦ in Latin America it was these regions, which initiated and experienced the most promising self-generating economic development of the classical industrial capitalist type. The most important regional cases probably are Tucuman and Asuncion, as well as †¦ Mendoza and Rosario†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Development Studies, p. 33). The now underdeveloped countries have not had the opportunity to continue developing in the conditions of growing capitalism. Consequently, the development of these countries has had to be sacrificed for that of others. Therefore, the contemporary underdevelopment of certain countries is connected with their close ties with now econ omically developed countries, which have become economically developed owing to these underdeveloped countries in the past, and which have abandoned them when the wealth of their mines, raw materials and natural resources disappeared. 3.0 Frank’s Underdevelopment Theories with Relation to Latin America and Asia 3.1 Introduction The concepts of Frank’s studies on Development of Underdevelopment and mainly his Dependency Theory are known for the way Frank applied them to Latin American countries, with relation to Western European Countries and the United States. 3.2 Latin America Frank (1966) believed Latin America to be a victim of capitalism; having been integrated into the world capitalist system since the beginning of the sixteenth century. Although Sao Paolo has established the largest in Latin America, this has not helped the rest of Brazil to develop, but has deepened their underdevelopment. Furthermore, Frank maintained that although the development and industrialisation of Sao Paolo may have been carried out independently in the beginning, it is increasingly beginning to come in the clasp of the world capitalist system, which is posing a rising number of restrictions for possibilities of further development of the city. When writing about Latin America, Frank (1969, p. 432) made reference to a â€Å"metropolis-satellite† structure. This, he believed, is what the world market for goods, capital, and the international division of labour, have produced. This description portrays Frank’s belief that the developed, metropolitan countries take, or â€Å"suck† all of the capital or economic surplus from the other countries, or ‘satellites,’ in order to â€Å"feed† and increase their own development, but push the development of these other countries further down, eventually into an underdeveloped state. Although these countries may only have been undeveloped to begin with, the interference of the more developed countries has proved to be further detrimental than had they not interfered, or ‘helped,’ at all. There are several reasons for which the countries of Latin America are being exploited by developed countries. This exploitation began in the 18th century, and some of the reasons for exploitation included their natural resources; gold and silver, from Mexico, Peru, and Brazil; and the sugar and coffee also produced in Brazil. The sugar production by slaves in Brazil benefited Europe both at home, and when in competition with others abroad, such as Asia. During the 19th century, particularly towards the end of it, Brazil continued to increasingly export sugar and coffee, while Mexico, Peru, and Chile resumed mining, and Argentina exported wheat and meat for Britain and Europe (Frank, 1992). With so many raw materials and produced goods to offer, such an underdeveloped country is susceptible to being taken advantage of by those countries which need them, and have the money and power to exploit whoever or whatever gets in the way of them obtaining what they want or need. The underdevelopment of Latin America can also be seen to benefit developed countries in the form of labour; this includes labour which has been brought to the developed countries, as well as labour in the underdeveloped country. Specifically Latapi and Martin (no date) mentioned Mexican immigrants attempting to escape their world of underdevelopment by migrating to the United States, but being used by the United States for cheap labour. These high numbers of immigrants lead to an increase in the United States’ productivity, and also the net benefit received due to higher numbers of immigrants lowering the wages of other immigrant workers. 3.3 Asia As well as Latin America, the underdevelopment of countries in central Asia had also been the subject of much of Frank’s theories on underdevelopment. One such country specifically was China, which was believed to be one of the leading economically developed countries between 1400 and 1800 (Frank, 2005). Since its decolonisation and liberation in 1949, China has been predicted to regain its high position in the world economy, and this is the reason behind Frank’s book ‘ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age.’ In the book, Frank draws upon the words of Smith (1776); â€Å"China is a much richer country than any part of Europe† (Frank, 1998, p. 13). As Frank believed that Asia, and in particular China, is beginning to reclaim its place amongst the top players of the economically developed world; he also believed that the history of Asia should also be correctly portrayed, hence the above book was written. Frank was outspoken in that his thoughts of world history, in particular concerning Asia, were that they have been incorrectly portrayed by Europe. The alleged history of economic development is believed to be a Eurocentric portrayal which Frank claimed denies the real history of the world and neglects most of human reality; as well as altering the perception of Europe’s history. That is to say, history has been portrayed in such a way so as to focus on the people and culture of Europe, making it appear almost superior to others, including that of Asia. China’s drop from its high rates of development, to its current undeveloped situation, is seen to be the result of exploitation on behalf of already developed countries, such as those of Europe (Frank, 2005). Furthermore, Frank stated that â€Å"underdevelopment is not traditional†¦ it is the result of dependent capitalist development of underdevelopment† (Frank, 2005). Frank’s belief again stems from the arguments and evidence which imply that China was no more traditional than Europe between its period of peak economy (from 1400 to 1800), and that it was in fact greater, and more developed than Europe. The above quote could be interpreted to mean that underdevelopment is not the result of a lack of development of certain countries; but the result of the interference of developed countries which are dependent on undeveloped countries. These developed countries can only remain so if the undeveloped countries remain undeveloped; therefore they encourage the development of their undevelopment. This consequently causes the undeveloped countries to become classed as underdeveloped countries, as their efforts to become developed are actually hindered by developed countries, diminishing any hope they may have had of becoming modern. At the same time, Frank (2005) argued to the effect that capitalism does not in fact have any actual existence in the world, but is just an ideology. Although this contradicts his earlier work, he now states that the ideology of capitalism was simply created in order to make unclear world economical history, and it continues to do so for modern-day world economics. Frank shared in the views of Samir Amin, in that they both believed the way for China, as well as any other country, to be released from all forms of dependence, was to break all links and connections from the external world capitalist economy, and to break free from the internal socialism which were believed to be the root causes of dependence. This theory however was only possible, so to speak, in theory. Frank continued to reflect on his own beliefs by claiming that to the present day no country has managed to become fully free from dependence, only the South East Asian Tigers had managed to do so partially, and even they were still subject to financial problems. Frank concluded that there has not been a definite and clear answer given as to what to do if and when freedom from dependence would ever occur. Moreover, Frank highlighted his criticism of the Modernisation Theory, which stated that any country could become modernised with the help of those countries which are already modernised. He quoted; â€Å"The Europeans did not do anything – let alone ‘modernize’ – by themselves† (Frank, 2005). Using Europe as an example, he argued that the modernisation theory only applies to certain countries; shown by the fact that although Europe was receiving very cheap money in the form of dollars from America, this type of help was not made available to Asia. He continued to enforce the Dependency Theory which states that developed countries have become so, by depending on underdeveloped countries; as Europe has come to depend on the cheap labour it uses from Asia. Frank’s emphasis was that Europe uses underdeveloped countries like China as a step ladder in order to gain, and maintain, a good foot-hold in the modern world (Frank, 2005). The exploitation of China by developed countries can also be seen by looking at the United States. An example given by The National Labor Committee (2006) is the findings of an investigation of 16 factories in China, producing a large number of different items, such as car stereos, TVs, bikes, shoes, sneakers, clothing, hats, and bags, for some of the largest companies in the United States, namely Wal-Mart, Nike, Huffy, and others. The findings highlight the appalling conditions under which some people have to work, such as one factory where workers forced to work 12 to 14 hours a day, 7 days a week, with only one day off a month, at an average wage of 3 cents an hour. The low wages did not give workers any benefit, as they still ended up in debt to the company. Workers were fed two meals a day, and 16 workers were housed in one small dorm. Some workers could not even afford the bus fare to leave the factory in order to look for another job, and in the past any protest about the work ing conditions has led to 800 workers losing their jobs. This is a prime example of what Frank has referred to as the exploitation of underdeveloped countries by developed countries. Without this type of exploitation, countries like those of the United States would not be able to increase their profit margins and become as rich as they are. Another example in Asia is Japan, which is believed a rapidly modernising country, particularly towards the end of the 19th century. This was done particularly with the use of â€Å"technical and scientific training and research,† and this type of education is what is believed to be an essential factor for developing countries. The effects of this can be seen by the South East Asian Tigers, as mentioned by Frank, who are increasing in levels of modernisation and economic development due to this type of training and education. Australia, as a developed country, has been thought to have benefit by providing some of this training for countries like Japan, as well as others. However, it has been argued that unless Australia improves its infrastructure, countries in Asia will rightly decide that they no longer need the help of developed countries like Australia, and can do a better job themselves. In relation to Frank’s theories, this can be seen support to his views of the Dependency Theory. Blakey (1997) stated that Australia is benefiting from the underdeveloped countries; but as these underdeveloped countries are becoming more and more independent and modernised, they may no longer need the so-called ‘help’ of these countries. Blakey (1997) also claims that Great Britain’s industrial society is no longer as advanced as it used to be; manufacturing and science are now believed to be in decline. This could be said to be the result of underdeveloping countries becoming more independent; the consequence of which is the economy of the developed countries falling to those levels which the underdeveloped countries have had to deal with for years. Another social theorist who agrees with Frank is Glyn who, as highlighted in an interview by Hoveman (2006), claims that Japan’s lack of economic improvement in the last 15 years has been welcomed by Europe and the US. In addition, Glyn states that China’s dramatic rise in economic development could prove to be dangerous for already developed countries, such as the United States, due to the fact that the Chinese monetary authorities buy large amounts of dollars. Should they ever stop, the value of the dollar would fall dramatically; this would result in the United States having to increase interest rates to prevent inflation rates from rising dramatically. This could then in turn lead to, at the very least, the danger of rising economic development coming to an abrupt halt for the United States; the threat of ‘stagnation. 4.0 Conclusion / Discussion On the whole, what is made evident in this report is that in Andre Gunder Franks thesis, the development of the centre not only involves, but requires the underdevelopment of the previously undeveloped periphery. This is because development has depended upon resources which are stolen from the periphery, and resources which are exploited; as well as people which are exploited. At the same time the periphery becomes increasingly dependent upon the centre for certain crucial modern resources, including technology and knowledge (Bronferbenner, 1972). Franks early speculation on The Development of Underdevelopment was brilliant and crucial for the emergence of both the dependency theory and the world-system paradigm. His efforts at systematically linking the external economic behaviour of the socialist alliance to the larger capitalist division of labour, has been instrumental in our understanding of not only the nature and role of existing socialisms, but the overall dynamics of the wor ld economy (Bergesen, 1982). In his view, Asia and Latin America have actually developed underdevelopment; whereas Europe, North America, and Australia have accumulated capital at the expense of the periphery. This accumulation of capital has been made possible through the process of unequal exchange between regions, and the transformation internally of regions at the productive, social, and political levels. Frank applied his theories of development to various countries affected by underdevelopment; specifically those of Latin America and Asia. These however are just to name a few; his theories could be applied to many other underdeveloped countries. Frank viewed the present world as a manifestation of the dominance the centre metropolis has over the dependent periphery; involving unequal exchange and exploitation. The exploitation of the people, and of the natural resources and raw materials of these countries, is what Frank believed to be the key behind his Dependency Theory. He asserted that developed countries such as Britain, Australia, have only received the labels of being ‘developed countries’ because of their dependence on these underdeveloped countries. The low wages given to workers of these underdeveloped countries, together with the natural resources and raw material which are either stolen or bought at extortionately low prices, are all a combination of what allow the developed countries to have such large margins of profit. These high amounts of profit can then be reinvested in order to increase the riches of the countries further; all at the expense of underdeveloped countries. That is to say, if developed countries did not exploit underdeveloped countries, then in Frank’s views they would not be such a thing as an ‘underdeveloped county;’ all countries which have not become economically developed, would simply be undeveloped. The term undeveloped at least allows a country the opportunity to become developed; whereas underdeveloped implies it can never become developed due to the continuing exploitation of these developed countries. References Bergesen, A. (1982) Reviewed Work: ‘Crisis: In the World Economy,’ by Andre Gunder Frank. Contemporary Sociology. 11 (1), pp. 55-56. Blakey, L. (1997) ‘The Death of Australian Science and Technology,’ ABC Radio National [online]. Available at: http://abc.net.au/rn/ockhamsrazor/stories/1997/22.htm (Accessed 27 April 2007). Bronfenbrenner, M. (1979) World Accumulation, 1492-1789. By Andre Gunder Frank. Journal of Economic Literature. 17 (4), pp. 1460-1461. Development Studies: Thinking about Development, reprinted in full from Monthly Review September (1966), pp. 27-37. Economy Professor (2006) Andre Gunder Frank. Available at: http://www.economyprofessor.com/theorists/andregunderfrank.php (Accessed 17 April 2007). Frank, A. G. (1966) The Development of Underdevelopment. Monthly Review 18(4), pp. 17–37. Frank, A.G. (1967a) Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin America: Historical Studies of Chile and Brazil, New York, Monthly Review Press. Frank, A.G. (1967b) Sociology of Development and Underdevelopment of Sociology, Catalyst 3: pp. 20–73. Frank, A. G. (1969) ‘Latin America: Underdevelopment or Revolution,’ The Economic Journal, 81 (322), pp. 432-434. Frank, A.G. (1992) ‘Latin America at the Margin of World System History,’ The Andre Gunder Frank Official Website. Available at: http://www.rrojasdatabank.org/agfrank/latin_margin.html (Accessed 29 April 2007). Frank, A. G. (1998) ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age. Berkeley, University of California Press. Frank, A. G. (2005) ‘Personal Research Interests for Public Policy Practice,’ The Andre Gunder Frank Official Website. Available at: http://www.rrojasdatabank.org/agfrank/research.html (Accessed 26 March 2007). Hoveman, R. (2006) The Socialist Review. Available at: http://www.socialistreview.org.uk/article.php?articlenumber=9792 (Accessed 27 April 2007). Kay, C. (1989) ‘Andre Gunder Frank: From the ‘Development of Underdevelopment’ to the ‘World System.’ ’ Development and Change, vol. 36, no. 6, pp. 1177-1183 Blackwell Synergy [Online]. Available at: http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.0012-155X.2005.00455.x (Accessed 14th April 2007). Latapi, A. E. and Martin, S. (no date) Mexico – U.S. Migration Management A Binational Approach. Available at: http://www.hewlett.org/NR/rdonlyres/E7D5BD75-AB6E-4780-A354-EB4D4BBA9779/0/USMexicoMigration.pdf (Accessed 29 April). The National Labor Committee (2006) The Role of US Companies in Denying Human and Worker Rights. Available at: http://www.nlcnet.org/campaigns/archive/chinareport/introduction.shtml (Accessed 30 April).